Asad Ali Khan   Ehtasham Ullah Khan   and Kinza Khan   

Global climate has changed over past several decades and significantly influenced the components of natural and socio-economic environment. Hydrological cycle is highly vulnerable to climate change (CC), specifically in developing countries like Pakistan which lack proper management of fresh water resources. This study intends to examine the CC impacts on water resources of Pakistan. Relying primarily on secondary data gathered mainly from various national and international reports, research studies, publications, and other sources such as websites like 'climate change knowledge portal for development practitioners and policy makers', it attempts to bring out a clear picture of the issue that can help to draw lessons for the future preparedness. For smoothing temperature data, simple moving averages for 5-year interval were also computed. The actual and 5-year smooth values were then plotted against the time, which clearly show rising trends of temperature, an indication of CC. The results demonstrate that climate is changing mainly because of global warming, resulting from greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE). Besides multifaceted and wide ranging global impacts, CC is also affecting water resources of Pakistan negatively threatening future developments. If appropriate and timely mitigation measures were not taken, problems concerning water resources of the country will aggravate further. The study suggests that prime mitigation measures include reduction of GHGE, and appropriate management and conservative use of existing water resources.

Olanrewaju Clement Alaba   Micheal Babatope Ayodele   and Francis Odinakachukwu Udokwu   

Gemstone mining involves the removal of vegetation and soil, which disrupts the flow of ecosystem services and leads to inevitable and often permanent conflicts related to land use/land cover (LULC) and species diversity. Addressing these conflicts, this study uses Komu gemstone mining areas as a case study. A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) was created using a pair of images collected by a satellite to generate surface analysis models with the help of ArcGIS 10.3 software. Landsat satellite imagery for the years 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, sourced from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), was adopted to examine LULC changes. The species diversity was studied using the quadrats method, which involved constructing wire square frames of size 0.25 m² that were later divided into equal quadrats of size 5 by 5 cm. The DTM indicated that the peak elevation on the sites was 31.5 m, whereas the lowest point was 20.5 m above the reference level. The surface assessment of the investigation site demonstrates that Komu Community is an elevated locality with a gradual-to-level gradient, rising 35 meters above mean sea level. The vegetation covered 616.98 km² in 2000 but was reduced to 571.88 km² in 2020, whereas the built-up zone expanded from 57.04 km² to 94.44 km² in 2000 and 2020, respectively. The area covered by water was 0.06 km² in 1990; however, by 2000, it had increased to 16.24 km², fluctuated to 16.65 km² in 2010, and then expanded to 17.33 km² in 2020. However, the species diversity was evaluated to be 0.08, with a complete sum of 293 classifications existing in all the quadrants. The research concluded that the continuous mining of gemstones in the study area is attributable to the incessant degradation of vegetation, increased built-up areas, and water bodies, which negatively impact species diversity.

Zuhriddin Juraev   and Young-Jin Ahn   

This study examines the crucial role of green spaces in Uzbekistan and provides a geographical analysis of the issues involved. Utilizing data from 2017 to 2022, including social media posts, the research adopts a multidimensional approach, integrating urban network theory and ecofeminist perspectives to assess the spatial distribution of green areas. Employing the urban green space ratio formula provides insights into urban green space extent. Emphasizing geography's significance in devising effective green space strategies, the study underscores geographers' potential contributions. Incorporating ecofeminist principles, the study advocates inclusive and equitable environmental protection and management. Findings indicate a decline in green spaces due to environmental concerns and data limitations. Nevertheless, the study offers valuable insights into the historical heritage and current environmental issues, supporting comprehensive monitoring and geographic research for sustainable land management. Prioritizing investment in green spaces is essential for enhancing urban well-being in Uzbekistan and beyond. The study's unique contribution lies in integrating urban network theory, ecofeminism, and empirical analysis, providing novel perspectives to tackle urban green space challenges. Practical implications necessitate policy interventions for ecological balance and healthier urban environments. Social implications involve promoting gender equality and inclusivity in green space initiatives, aligning with global efforts towards sustainable urban development.

Tetiana O. Koshliakova   

The presented publication analyzes Ukrainian and foreign publications regarding the current principles of biogeochemical regionalization. Traditional domestic approaches to landscape zoning are described, namely according to Oleksandr Vinogradov and Victor Kovalskyi. With the traditional approach, biogeochemical regionalization is based on special biosphere taxa of various orders: biogeochemical regions of the biosphere (the first order taxa), biogeochemical subregions of the biosphere (the second order taxa), and biogeochemical provinces (the third order taxa). Within this frame, the article provides a detailed description of the concept of biogeochemical provinces. The main biogeochemical zones of Ukraine are described, which are currently carved out according to Ukrainian methods of biogeochemical regionalization: Forest-Marsh zone (occupies 19% of the territory), Forest-Steppe zone (occupies 34% of the territory), Northern and Southern Steppe zone (occupies 40% of the territory), and Forest-Meadow zone (occupies 7% of the territory). In a separate section, the author outlines the main approaches to biogeochemical regionalization, which are widely used in developed countries, particularly in the USA, China, and European countries. These approaches can be combined into three groups, each of which has its characteristics: pattern analysis (structural approach), spatially explicit analysis, and extrapolation method. In all these methods, special attention is paid to the choice of a priori discrete classification scheme. Two general types of field sampling designs are commonly used to capitalize on continuous variation in the controls over biogeochemical processes: in the first, one or more transects are arrayed along the major gradients, and sampling is conducted at regular or random intervals; the second type of design for sampling continuous variation is to utilize a grid sampling scheme that permits continuous variation in all independent and dependent variables. In the final part of the article, the author proposes ways to implement modern approaches in the field of biogeochemistry on a landscape (regional) scale to domestic methods, particularly the implementation of the principle of extrapolation using empirical modeling for hydrogeochemical data. The importance of using the experience and approaches of foreign scientists in connection with Ukraine's involvement in the European Union's LIFE environmental protection program was emphasized.

Olanrewaju Clement Alaba   and Micheal Babatope Ayodele   

Climate change has emerged as a global issue and one of the world's most pressing environmental challenges. Despite the contribution of the cement industry to the releases of carbon dioxide (the most significant contributor to GHG emissions) in Nigeria, only a few research writing focused on its influence on climate change. This paper, therefore, studied the variation in concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) within the environment of the Dangote Obajana Cement Plant. The CO₂ data used for the study were collected from the European Space Agency website. The satellite image data were downloaded from Google Earth and digitized to extract the study area using the WGS1984 geographic coordinate system while ArcMap packages were used for the data processing. The annual descriptive statistics for CO₂ variation for the years 2003, 2008, and 2018, showed that the minimum mean concentration was 373.451.07, 382.92054, and 0.950.17 while the maximum mean concentration was 374.931.0, 384.780.69, and 0.970.17. Bartlett's test for equal variances, with chi-squares statistics of 103.44 and 12.33, and a probability (Prob>chi2) value of 0.001 established that the minimum and maximum CO₂ emissions variances within the years are significantly different. The Bonferroni test revealed that all the years had CO₂ emissions that were significantly different from one another as their p-value was less than 0.05 with the minimum emission occurring in 2018 and the maximum in 2008. The study concluded that the influence of the Dangote Obajana Cement Plant's operation on the release of CO₂ concentrations across the study areas was insignificant since there was no uniformity in their concentrations.

Lidia Razowska-Jaworek   and Joanna Cudak   

High fluoride content exceeding permissible limits for drinking water and causing numerous incidents of fluorosis disease in the population of Nysa town was the reason for the closure of the deepest wells in the western part of the Neogene groundwater basin Paczków-Niemodlin in the Opole region in Poland. Hydrochemical studies conducted by the Polish Geological Institute – National Research Institute resulted in the recognition and extent of fluoride anomaly in the groundwater extracted from the Neogene basin in southern Poland. The studies provided a comprehensive recognition of hydrogeological and chemical conditions of the aquifer located in the Neogene basin characterized by a series of fine-grained sands within a series of clays. The content of fluoride in groundwater is high; the average is 2.1 mg/L, maximum value reached 11.5 mg/l, exceeding several times the permissible limit for drinking waters (1.5 mg/L). The main objective of this study was to determine the source of high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater in the western part of Paczków-Niemodlin basin where the highest concentrations were observed. The investigations confirmed the increase in fluoride content with the decreasing altitude of the aquifers. Various factors that may form the chemistry of these groundwater were analyzed. The most probable source of high fluoride content in groundwater in this basin is their long-term contact with Precambrian and Palaeozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks containing fluorine-rich minerals along with the location near large fault zones, which may be privileged water flowpaths from greater depths.

Naoufal Saoud   Issam Derkaoui   Jaouad Choukrad   Mohamed Amine El Moussalim   and Mohamed Charroud   

Geological Research and prospection, mining exploration, remote sensing, geochemical methods, and geophysical technologies could improve the effectiveness and productivity of mineral exploration and ore identification. The application of these kinds of technologies presents the key factor of the future mining discoveries across the world. In this paper, we present the case study that consists to the use of geological investigation, remote sensing and geochemical studies in order of describing and determinizing the mineral fraction occurred in the Liasic series of Tazekka that manifests as carbonates cover of the Hercynean basement of the eastern Mesetean domain of Morocco. In fact, the followed procedure assigns the handling of remote sensing maps related to the area study, where we focus the hydrothermal alteration whichever allows the determination of selective and representative sample stations. Note that the collected samples were subjected for two kind of geochemical analysis, when the first consists to the determination of mineral tenors using Inductive Coupled Plasma (ICP), and the second corresponds to the examination of samples by powder X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) methods in order to provide useful information about sample composition in terms of quantification of crystalline phases and content. In this work, we make in evidence the existence of remarkable mineralization of base and precious metals. These results may present an economic discovery in term of the potentiality of the Liasic cover of Tazekka for the mining exploration.

Josphat K. Mulwa   

Lake Chala is a transboundary fresh water lake characterized by lack of effluent surface drainage and is located in southwestern Kenya on the Kenya-Tanzania border. This is a semiarid region frequently facing severe water scarcity especially during drought seasons. The major economic activities undertaken within the lake's catchment area include small-scale rain fed agriculture, which accounts for about 75-80% of household income. Over reliance on rain-fed agriculture has often had negative impacts on the people in this area due to water scarcity occasioned by unreliable rains. As such, there is need to tap the lake water for irrigation purposes. In order to determine the geochemical characteristics and suitability of the lake's catchment waters for irrigation purposes, water samples were collected on the Kenya and Tanzania sides of Lake Chala from eleven (11) sites in March 2011 and subjected to analysis for chemical characteristics. Based on hydro-chemical facies, ten water samples show that calcium-Magnesium-bicarbonate waters predominates in the catchment area, while one water sample from a shallow well is a calcium-magnesium-chloride type. The suitability of the water for irrigation purposes was evaluated based on sodium percent, residual sodium carbonate, sodium adsorption ratio and salinity hazard and found to be suitable for irrigation purposes. Crop type and soils may also have a profound influence on water suitability for irrigation. It is, therefore, herein recommended that further study be undertaken to evaluate the suitability of soils for specific crop types.

Tai-Hwa Hor   Chih-Hsien Wei   Yi-Sheng Chen   and Tian-Yow Shyu   

Typhoon Matmo (2014) was formed over the Central Pacific Ocean on 18 July 2014, and later, it became moderate in intensity (32.7~50.9 m/s) with maximum wind speed of 38 m/s. After it landed the southeast coast of China, the typhoon circulation showed an asymmetric pattern in dipole wind field based upon the composite mean winds at 925 hPa in use of NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and NOAA/ESRL atmospheric variables plotting approach. The wind dipole feature was due to the steep gradient of the geopotential height anomaly at the east flank of the typhoon circulation and the friction effect at its lowest levels over land from the synoptic scale point of view. The study focuses on investigating the characteristics of the line echo wave pattern (LEWP) embedded within the typhoon rainband through the multi-scale processes, and try to realize the possible causes of crash event from the meteorological point of view for TransAsia Airways GE222 occurrence at Makung Airport influenced by the LEWPs in use of mesonet surface analysis based on 1-minute interval data measured by Makung Airport weather station and dual-Doppler radar analysis composited from Makung and Chiku weather radar data. The preliminary results delineated that the wave-like echoes organized by deep convections featured a key factor on the development of short duration heavy rainfall, low visibility and significant turbulence from the mesoscale point of view. Conclusively speaking, the aircraft faced multiple and severe weather situations, including the intense crosswind, obvious downdraft and extremely low visibility. Therefore, the impact of deep convections inside LEWPs embedded within the typhoon rainband on aviation safety was remarkable, and this case is a good lesson for flight safety.

Josphat K. Mulwa   

The Davie Ridge (also known as Davie fracture zone), considered as the seaward extension of eastern branch (Kenya Rift Valley) of the East African Rift System [1,2], is a 2200 km-long prominent relic fracture zone that cuts across the West Somali Basin [3-5]. It ranges between 30 and 120 km wide, with a west-facing scarp along the lower half of its length [2,6]. Earthquakes as deep as 40 km have been recorded below the Davie Ridge. However, recent seismic data shows that M_w 4.0 -5.0 earthquakes at crustal depths (10≤d≤30 km) are common. Since early 2018-2019, the Davie ridge has been characterized by high frequency of 4.4≤M_w≤5.4 earthquakes occurrence. The purpose of the present research is to evaluate the stress drop along the Davie ridge using an empirical exponential relationship developed for M_w and fault parameters (length, width and rupture area) for the East African region and compare the results to those obtained from conventional body wave inversion. The results of this study show that, using empirical exponential relation, the stress drop, , and the corresponding fault (rupture) area, S², ranges between 0.49-0.78 MPa and 15.7-32.5 km² respectively. Fault rupture area and stress drop results based on body wave inversion and empirical exponential equations for M_w < 6.0 are very similar. For M_w≥ 6.0, however, the fault rupture area is under-estimated and this tends to over-estimate the stress drop. Empirical exponential relations offer a rapid estimate of fault parameters and stress drop for M_w ≤ 6.0 earthquakes.

Adegboyega Emmanuel Rotimi   

Sustainable development and national security have received a great deal of attention from a number of developed and developing countries of the world including Nigeria. Various efforts are put in place to ensure sustainable development and national security through reliable information on the location, extent and quality of the development put in place (serve as basic requirements for land use, land use planning and national security) in Nigeria. It is the responsibility of the Federal and State governments respectively to deliver political goods such as health, education, economic opportunity, good governance, fundamental infrastructure (transport and communication) and security. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used for the research to know why people build houses and other structures along river banks, within the areas liable to flooding, as well as under electricity high tension. It draws attention to the challenges facing sustainable development and security in Nigeria. The paper discusses the ignorance of people towards the existing rules and standards provided through Land Information System (LIS) on land such as setbacks (offsets) and reveals that most governments (federal, states, and local) in the course of carrying out their responsibilities waste resources due to non-compliance to the available guide map (land information provided).This made over 65% of developments to be under security threats and cause loss of lives and properties in Nigeria. The paper concluded that awareness and education should be given to the public and recommended that some states should take their priorities right by carrying out digital mapping in their states and ensuring compliance with the land information management (LIM) for national security in Nigeria.

Weiji Liu   and Xiaohua Zhu   

Wellbore instability is a crucial concern problem in highly inclined well drilling, extended reach well drilling and horizontal well drilling, particularly in high temperature and high pressure (HPHT) formations. However, few studies have concentrated on the three-dimensional inclined wellbore instability analysis considering the influence of thermo-poroelastoplasticity and filter cake. In the present study, a three-dimensional inclined wellbore stability model fully coupling thermo-poroelastoplasticity and considering filter cake is created and analyzed using finite element analysis. This model can be used for the wells with any deviation angle and azimuth angles simply by changing the far field stresses and boundary conditions. The distribution of pore pressure and wellbore stress under various deviation angles, consolidation time and temperature gradients are investigated. The research results show that, the wellbore instability problem is generally severe in the inclined wells comparing to the vertical wells. The wellbore becomes unstable as the consolidation time increases, and it is more unstable under positive temperature gradient than under negative; the filter cake can reduce the pore pressure and stress around the wellbore, it prevents the wellbore from shear failure in vertical well (deviation 0º), and prevents the wellbore from tensile failure in inclined well especially in the horizontal well (deviation 90º). The results obtained in this paper can benefit a deeper understanding of the instability mechanism of inclined wellbore.

Awoke Ayalew   Nata T. Tafesse   Miruts Hagos   and Kitso N. Matende   

This study was conducted in the upper parts of the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia, with the objective of characterizing the different volcanic rock aquifers and evaluating their respective productivity. Geological, structural and hydrogeological methods were utilized in this study. Quaternary vesicular basalt (27.33%) and Tertiary aphanitic basalts (72.67%) are the two geological formations in the basin. In both cases, the weathered and fractured zones are the water bearing zones. Confined aquifer, multilayer confined aquifer and multilayer unconfined–confined aquifer are the types of aquifers identified in the basin. The computed values of the hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and specific capacity for the multilayer unconfined-confined aquifers ranges from 0.165 to 49 m/day, 11.30 to 3870 m²/day, and 0.164 to 30.968 l/sec/m, respectively. The computed hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and specific capacity for the multilayer confined aquifer are 0.525 m/day, 10.9 m²/day and 0.190 l/sec/m, respectively. The hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and specific capacity for the confined aquifer are 6.46 m/day, 148 m²/day and 1.363 l/sec/m, respectively. Based on the analyzed results of transmissivity and specific capacity, three aquifer potentiality groups were recognized: high potentiality aquifer, moderately potentiality aquifer and low potentiality aquifers. For sustainable groundwater management in the basin, development of groundwater should take place in the area covered by high potentiality aquifer by considering the whole thickness of the aquifers.

Eric Clausen   

Detailed topographic map evidence is used to test the ability of two fundamentally different regional geomorphology paradigms to explain Bighorn-Wind River drainage divide evidence in the Copper and Lysite Mountain areas between Wind River Canyon and the Bighorn Mountains. Identified divide crossings were interpreted to be places where water had once flowed across what is now a major drainage divide. More than 20 such divide crossings were identified and ranged in elevation from 1924 to 2485 meters and could all be linked to north-oriented Bighorn River tributaries and also to south-oriented streams flowing to west-oriented Badwater Creek (a Wind River tributary). Lowest elevation divide crossings were located to the north of both Copper Mountain and Lysite Mountain. An attempt was first made to explain each identified divide crossing or group of divide crossings from the accepted paradigm's perspective, which requires drainage routes to have originated on the surface of a hypothesized Oligocene and Miocene sediment cover that buried the drainage divide area with the drainage routes eroding down through the sediment cover as the drainage divide was exhumed. Next the same evidence was interpreted from a recently proposed paradigm's perspective, which requires massive south- and southeast-oriented floods to have flowed across the Missouri River drainage basin as mountain ranges and plateau areas were being uplifted. The accepted paradigm could not easily explain the large number of observed divide crossings, many divide crossing details, and why geologic maps show few or no hypothesized sediment cover remnants. The new paradigm explained the large number of observed divide crossing and most observed divide crossing details and did not require an Oligocene and Miocene sedimentary cover.

Elena Shevnina   Andrey Silaev   and Timo Vihma   

Exceedance probability of a potential hydropower production was evaluated for 12 river basins located in Finland. The exceedance probability curves of the potential hydropower production were assessed from the probabilistic projections of annual runoff rate. The exceedance probability curves of the ARR are constructed within the Pearson type 3 distributions from simulated parameters, i.e. mean values, coefficient of variation and coefficient of skewness. In our case study, these parameters were simulated from the mean values of annual precipitation rate calculated from outputs of two climate models under three Representative Concentration Pathway's climate scenarios. The future changes in the potential hydropower production for the selected river basins were evaluated on the assumption that a potential hydropower production is linearly related to ARR in all range of exceedance probabilities.

Taiwo O. M.   Okosun E. A.   Goro A. I.   and Alkali Y. B.   

Microfacies analysis combined with palynological studies were carried out on two wells (OM-4 and OM-A wells) in the Niger Delta to reconstruct the depositional environment of the penetrated wells from 8200 – 11350 ft each in both wells. The succession studied yielded rich terrestrial components of the palynomorph assemblage, which gave zero to low PMI values in both wells, suggesting a paralic (freshwater to marginal marine) environment. Also, the abundance of mangrove swamp species such as, Zonocostites ramonae, Acrostichum aureum, Botryococcus braunii and Psilatricolporites crassus in both wells (which are brackish water indicators) denotes an environment of deposition with higher terrestrial influences and pockets of marine intrusions, confirming a paralic environment of deposition. The facies established from the wireline log signatures gave an alternating cylindrical to funnel shaped log motif with few units of bell shapes. This was interpreted as continental to marginal marine environment. The results of the facies analyses were correlated with the PMI values of the wells and generally cylindrical to funnel shaped facies were established with corresponding nil to low PMI values, confirming a paralic environment of deposition in both wells.

Masaru Yoshida   Kazunori Arita   Tetsuya Sakai   and Bishal Nath Upreti   

A geotraverse connecting the Kaligandaki and the Tinau rivers via Pokhara in Western Nepal covers all geologic zones of the Himalayan Orogen from the Tethys Himalayan Zone in the north to the Gangetic Plain in the south. The Student Himalayan Exercise Program has aimed to conduct tours of the above geotraverse, provided for Japanese and Nepalese students. The preparation of the program started in 2008, and the practical content of the tour was decided in December 2010 by collecting ideas from several Himalayan geologists in Japan and Nepal and receiving consent of 17 geoscience-related university departments, committing them to give education points for the participation in the exercise, or to examine the possibility of it. After collecting ideas from and sending call-for-participants to geoscience-related departments of over 60 Japanese universities, and after negotiations with several Nepalese trekking agencies, the first Student Himalayan Exercise Tour (SHET) was conducted in March 2012. Since then the exercise tour was conducted every year in March. We are convinced that the SHETs throughout all 7 years (2012-2018) were successful and meaningful, and we therefore suggest that the program should continue further in future.

Aaron K. Waswa   

Kabatini area is in Nakuru County which occurs in Kenya within the great Gregory rift valley. The area is bounded by longitudes 180900-181200 and latitudes 9971050-9971200 in UTM. This research aimed to investigate the possible occurrence of subsurface faults recharging Kabatini aquifer which is the primary source of groundwater for the residents of Nakuru town and its environs. Vertical electrical sounding and geological mapping methods were used to unravel this problem of subsurface fault occurrence in the area of study. Vertical Electrical Sounding data collected were analyzed using the computer-based inversion using EarthImager software, which allows the performance of automatic interpretation of the Schlumberger sounding curves to obtain the equivalent n-layer model from the apparent resistivity curve of each sounding. This procedure was used for all the sounding points collected in the study area, to obtain the equivalent apparent resistivity models of each sounding, their depths as well as thicknesses. The results indicate the occurrence of subsurface faults trending in the north-south direction which is proven by K-H-K, K-H-H, Q-H-A, Q-H-Q. Depth iso-resistivity analysis shows that the fault plane is deeper than 165 meters below the surface.

Victor Alania   Onise Enukidze   Nugzar Glonti   Alexander Razmadze   Alexander Chabukiani   Anzor Giorgadze   Bacho Vakhtang Glonti   Kakhaber Koiava   Tamar Beridze   Sophio Khutsishvili   and Rusudan Chagelishvili   

Our study is focused on the structural geometry of the western part of Kura foreland fold-and-thrust belt (KFFTB) disposed in the central part of the Caucasus. Structural architecture of the Georgian part of the KFFTB has been interpreted using seismic reflection profile. Building of structures of the Kura foreland basin was formed by Greater Caucasus basement wedge propagation along detachment horizons within the cover-generating thin-skinned structures represented by Neogene shallow marine and thick continental sediments. Based on the structural style of deformation, two seismic–structural complexes were identified in seismic profiles: an upper and a lower complex. Seismic reflection data reveal the presence of south-vergent thrusts, north-vergent backthrusts, and duplex. The deformations in the KFFTB structures were controlled by the multi-level detachments. The Didi Shiraki thrust-top basin has a bivergent geometry and is filled by Pliocene-Pleistocene syn-kinematic sediments.

Viktor V. Dolin   Vasyl M. Bobkov   Oleksandr V. Pushkarev   and Tetiana O. Koshliakova   

In a greenhouse experiment, some features of Tritium migration from an aqueous feeding solution to white willow (Salix alba L.) habitat components and isotopic effects of hydrogen during the willow growth have been studied. A number of rate constants for tritiated water diffusion through pores, cell membranes and uptake through the root system (k = (8.44±0.03)•10^-7 s^-1); ³H/¹H isotopic exchange in OH- groups of organic substances (k = 5.07•10^-7); ,isotopic lightening, during photosynthesis (k = 5.00•10^-8) were calculated from the experimental data. The rate constant of tritium transfer through the root system to intercellular sap of plants is 2.17±1.45•10^-6 s^-1. The tritium distribution between the feeding solution and the intercellular sap has come to equilibrium within 1-2 weeks. The fractionation factor (α) is 0.88-0.94 and does not depend on the concentration of ³H in the feeding solution. The rate constant of transformation of tritium into organically bound species is 8.6±3.0•10^-7 s^-1. The equilibrium has set from 4 to 11 weeks, α = 0.17-0.19 and does not depend on 3H concentration in the feeding solution. At the same time, strong isotopic effect of ,lightening, of the feeding solution, probably owing to transpiration, has been observed. The rate constant value of Tritium transpiration calculated from the experimental data is 2.67±0.27•10^-8 s^-1. The rate of tritium removal due to transpiration is proportional to its concentration in the feeding solution. The factor of tritium fractionation during transpiration is 1.35±0.08.

Chrisphine Ouko   Felix Mutua   and Mercy Mwaniki   

The process of determining hydrocarbon potential areas for exploration requires numerous extensive studies of both surface and subsurface structures. Analysis and good understanding of these structures and surface expressions related to hydrocarbon formation provides a basis for identifying petroleum traps. The existence of favorable subsurface conditions for petroleum accumulation is always dependent on surface manifestation of petroleum traps. Identifying these areas prior to exploration allows for proper planning of seismic works so as to focus exploration and resources on relatively small areas. The main objective of this study was to locate and map petroleum potential areas in parts of Turkana by integrating spatial data derived from geology, gravity and remote sensing. Six predictor maps were developed including; alteration, lineament density, residual gravity anomaly, proximity to fault, lithology and regional gravity anomaly. The maps were analyzed using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model to generate petroleum potential map. The map was further classified to high, moderate and low potential zones. The final petroleum potential map was validated by 9 existing wells that were not used in training. The final map demarcated an area of 8,994.41 Km² equivalent to 55.9% of the total study area as high potential.

Kariem A. Ghazal   Olkeba Tolessa Leta   Aly I. El-Kadi   and Henrietta Dulai   

Dissolved silicate (DSi) is one of the essential elements of biogeochemical cycles in the coastal zones. It plays a vital role in the preservation of endemic diverse organism's structure like plankton groups. DSi estimation and distribution within coastal aquifer and its fluxes into the ocean has been getting great attention among researchers, managers, and policymakers especially who focus on the coastal environmental health. However, estimating DSi is very challenging due to the fact that the nutrient fluxes magnitude can vary spatially and temporally. In the Hawaiian coastlines, the main sources of DSi are the weathering products of basaltic rock and volcanic ashes, which mainly gets transported to the coast by groundwater flow. In this study, an integrated hydrological modeling approach is considered as a robust way to estimate DSi fluxes both at temporal and spatial scales. The integrated model consists of the SWAT, MODFLOW, and SEAWAT models. Hereto, we also estimated DSi fluxes under different scenarios, such as wetland restoration (LU), climate change (CL), and sea level rise (SLR). While the CL scenarios were run using the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios for mid and late 21^st century, the SLR of 0.4 and 1.1 meter was assumed. The findings indicated that the average DSi flux under California grassland cover was about 48 moles per day that increased by 15% during the wet season and decreased by 16% during the dry season. The DSi fluxes were highly dependent on fresh submarine groundwater discharge (FSGD). The climate change had a more negative impact on DSi fluxes by 5% when compared to the 1.1 meter of SLR scenario. On the other hand, wetland restoration did not have a significant effect on DSi fluxes. The decrease in DSi fluxes under SLR and climate change had a positive effect on the accumulative storing of DSi within coastal wetland. Overall, the integrated hydrological modeling approach has drawn a comprehensive picture of DSi fluxes and silicate behavior under various conditions within the Heeia coastal zone.

Boitumelo Tebuho Mukwati   Nata T. Tafesse   Zibisani B Bagai   and Laletsang K.   

The hydrogeochemistry of the Kasane hot spring in Kasane was conducted with the aim of knowing the hydrochemical nature of the spring. Kasane is situated in the most northern part of Botswana within the Chobe District. Sixteen water samples, forty-nine sediment samples and five rock samples were collected for analyses to achieve this objective. The water and sediment samples were analyzed for major cations, major anions and trace elements at the geochemistry laboratories of the University of Botswana and at the Department of Water Affairs. The physico-chemical parameters such as temperature of the water, pH, EC and TDS were measured in-situ. Petrographic analysis of the rock thin sections was also carried out to identify the mineralogical composition of the rocks of the study area. The geology of the area is generally Karoo volcanic. Thin sections analyses revealed that the rock is basalt made up of plagioclase, clinopyroxene and opaque minerals with othopyroxene and amphibole in trace amounts. In the analyzed water samples generally based on the mean values of the chemical parameters, the cations were in the order of abundance as and the anions were in the order of abundance as . In the analysed sediment samples the cations and anions are in the order of and , respectively. The spring and the groundwater from the pits north of the spring are slightly alkaline to alkaline, brackish to saline and hard to very hard whereas the groundwater west of the springs, river water and the sewage water are acidic to slightly alkaline (with the exception of sample W11, which is alkaline), fresh (with the exception of sample W12, which is brackish) and soft to hard. 75 % of the analyzed groundwater samples from the pits west of the hot spring show some similarities in the trend of concentration of the different constituents of the groundwater with the river water, suggesting that the groundwater is recent or derived from precipitation. The remaining 25 per cent of the groundwater samples from this part of the study area suggest that precipitation is not the sole source of groundwater and it could be derived from both precipitation and fluids of deep origin. The hot spring and the groundwater north of the hot springs are characterized by higher mineralization, and this could be attributed to the more supplement of the deep fluids that have deep origin. This implies that the source of the spring and the groundwater north of the hot spring have a regional origin. The hot spring water and all groundwater in the studied area are not recommended for drinking purposes.

John Olaolu Akindulureni   Adekunle Abraham Adepelumi   and Uzochukwu Kingsley Benjamin   

The depositional elements in the slope settings of Niger Delta were assessed in this study in order to improve current understanding of their evolution, geometry and formative processes. Well log analysis revealed thick sequences of shale, interbedded with relatively thin hydrocarbon-bearing turbidite sands in the studied interval. Depositional elements delineated include a 32km long submarine incised valley, an erosional channel belt and a leveed channel. Other features identified include scallops, terraces, linear grooves as well as scours of mass-transport deposits (MTDs). It was deduced that the submarine incised valley formed by gradual incision made by erosive turbidity flows and evolved in four post-incision phases. The erosional channel belt was interpreted to have formed by cut-and-fill processes, with no evidence of levees. The leveed channel characterized by low-amplitude channel-axis reflections and brighter levee amplitude signatures indicated the presence of thin sands in the levee areas and fine-grained channel-axis deposits. Fair to good reservoir potential of the fill-deposits were inferred from log responses and seismic amplitude signatures of the sand fill-deposits within the mapped interval. Results from this study show that the identified depositional elements formed from repeated erosive turbidity flows and other mass transport processes.

Partha Pratim Mahato   

Geophysical survey for cavity detection is one of the most common near surface application. The usage of resistivity methods are also very straightforward for the air filled underground voids, which should have theoretically very high resistivity in the ERT image, whereas the water filled cavities have low resistivity in Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) image. Three different geoelectric arrays Wenner, Schlumberger and Dipole-dipole are applied for detecting cavities. The survey results suggest that ERT is a viable geophysical tool for the detection and monitoring of mining voids and other subsurface cavities. The resolution capacity of joint Wenner-Schlumberger, Dipole-dipole array for the detection of cavity is greater than that of the individual one. Using the ERT survey in Patherdih Thana Basti village (Jharia coal field), a number of air filled cavity or water filled mining voids are detected at around 25-30m of below the ground level at different profile distance of 630m profile length along the road that extending S-E to N-W direction.

Mukrab Kassune   Nata T. Tafesse   and Miruts Hagos   

Characterization the different volcanic rock aquifers and evaluation of their respective productivity was done in Kola Diba well field (221 km²), north-central Ethiopia. Collections and analyses of pertinent secondary data were followed by detailed field investigation. Geological and structural investigations was conducted in the field paying particular attention to the different features of the overlying sediments and underlying volcanic rocks units that made them to be a water bearing formations. The structural data were analyzed using Stereonet v7.3 software. Hydrogeological logs, Semi‐log scale (specialized plot) and Log‐Log scale (diagnostic plot) were prepared to determine the different aquifer types and also to characterize the nature of each aquifer. Inventory of groundwater structures (boreholes and hand dug wells) were also conducted as part of hydrogeological investigation. Pumping test data were collected from ten deep wells and were analyzed using Theis and Neuman methods using Aquifer Test v3.5 software. Stratigraphically, the geology of the area from bottom to top is aphanitic basalt, porphyritic basalt and alluvial sediments. The rocks are affected by different degree of weathering and fractures. The geological formations of the area are categorized hydrogeologically into intergranular and fractured medium and fracture medium. The major aquifers are confined, unconfined and leaky. Hydraulic conductivity values of these different aquifers ranges from 0.0048 to 1.46 m/day with mean of 0.444 m/day, transmissivity ranges from 0.5 to 474 m²/day and specific capacity ranges from 0.026 to 0.88 l/sec/m with mean values of 86.878 m²/day and 0.325 88 l/sec/m, respectively. On the basis of their corresponding transmissivity and specific capacity value, the different aquifers of the studied area were categorized into four aquifer potentiality groups: moderate to low, low to weak, weak and very weak aquifers potentiality. Any future development of groundwater should be focused on the moderate to low potentiality aquifers.

Anar Veliyev   Aydin Bayramov   Javid Ibrahimov   Sabuhi Mammadov   and Gulnara Alizhadeh   

Gadir deposit is located in the East of Yogundag, near Gedabek deposit, also, Shamkir uplift of the Lok-Karabakh structural-formation zone in the Lesser Caucasus Mega-anticlinorium of Azerbaijan. The deposit has complicated geological structure, and consists of different age and different composite intrusive bulks and fracture structure consisted of complicated with Middle and Upper Jurassic sediments. A structural position of Yogundag area (also, Gadir) predetermined a set of magmatic complexes and a character of magmatism occurrence for Gedabek-Bittibulag deeper fault direction as a whole including the investigated area where are widely developed a set of volcano-pluton formations and volcanism of central character. Gadir was first suggested as a low sulfidation epithermal deposit type by Gedabek Exploration Geologists (2014) following field work and geological interpretation. The Gadir deposit is belong to Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag-Au vein deposit which is characteristic to Low Sulfidation epithermal deposit. The main ore minerals are sulfides. Sulfides consist of pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and trace amounts of chalcopyrite.

Tzanko Tzankov   Rosen Iliev   Ilia Mitkov   and Svetla Stankova   

Rila Mountain and Pirin Mountain (N 42.1^°, E 23.5^° and N 41.7^°, E 23.4^°) are the highest morphounits in the Balkan Peninsula. During the last Ice Age (Wuerm), their highest parts were subjected to an alpine-type glaciation. This led to the formation of various glacial landforms. The most expressive of them are the cirques. The main goal of the present study is to examine and evaluate the possible fractal geometry of 77 glacial cirques in Rila and Pirin Mountains. For this purpose is used the number / area method for estimating of surface fractals. This is the first investigation of this type for the study lands at all. The results obtained unambiguously confirm the fractal geometry of glacial cirques in the Rila and Pirin Mountains. This in turn provides new guidance in the analysis and interpretation of the relief building processes within the research area.

Maha Abd Elgaffar   Abdelnabi M.S.   and Abdo G. M   

Climate change is a challenge in the Blue Nile State, Sudan. It puts pressure on the existing vulnerable natural resources and with population increase it leads to conflicts among pastorals and farmers communities. This cross sectional study aimed at determining the indicators of climate change and its impacts on the pastorals livelihoods. It also pointed out mitigation measures suggested by the communities to cope with the impacts of climate change. The methods used for data collection included review of meta-data, interviews based questionnaires and notes of researchers. The major findings indicated a decline in rainfall quantity (from 1000 mm to 800mm), duration (from 5 to 4 months/year) and patterns mostly during El Nino years. According to the respondents, animals died during the decades of severe droughts of 1992 to 2002. Pastorals used strategies to minimize the impacts of climate change such as performing small income generating activities in conjunction with herding.

Xiu Wei   Dengfeng Liu   Jinkai Luan   Mingliang Li   and Mu Lin   

In the socio-hydrological system, the social processes, ecological processes and hydrological processes coupled together and interacted. The base of the analysis and modeling of socio-hydrological processes is the quantitative analysis of the social processes. The construction of the middle route of the South-To-North Water Diversion Project in China and the implementation of the Dan River ecological management project will have an important impact on the socio-economic development of the upper Han River basin in China. In order to reveal the changing laws of social and economic indicators in the Upper Reach of Han River, The social and economic processes in the Upper Reach of Han River are quantitatively analyzed. In this study, 12 socio-economic indicators, such as Total population, Gross domestic product (GDP), Per capita net income of farmers, Fiscal revenue, Common cultivated land area and Total grain output of the 29 counties in the upper reach of the Han River Basin are utilized. Based on the year of Han River Ecological Comprehensive Management, the indicators and their growth rates are analyzed by methods of one-dimensional linear regression, Mann-Kendall comprehensive test and cumulative departure. Economic indicator curves and mutation analysis shows that before and after the Han River Ecological Management, the total grain output changed from the decline trend to significantly decreased, the common cultivated land area has experienced from the reduction to the significant reduction, then to the relatively stable change, the oil-bearing crops output showed a slight upward trend, and the other economic indicators changed from the slow upward trend to a significant upward trend. Growth rates curves of socio-economic indicators and mutation analysis shows that, during and especially after the period of Dan River Comprehensive Management, all of growth rates of the socio-economic indicators showed a downward trend in different ranges. According to the analysis results, some relevant ecological compensation suggestions are put forward for the Upper Reach of Han River Basin.

Iyan Haryanto   and Adjat Sudradjat   

The Ciletuh-Jampang area is located in the western tip of the Southern Mountain of West Java, Indonesia. The area is presently well publicized in an effort to bring the unique geological characteristics exposed in this particular place to become the Global Geopark Network (GGN) of UNESCO. Ciletuh area exhibits a rare mega-aphitheater morphology. Stratigraphically West Java composed of clastic sediments of continental and volcanic island arc origin with the interruption of sub-aerial volcanic rocks and the coastal reefs banks developed along the coasts both in the north and the south. The age of the rock ranges between Eocene to Recent. The analysis of regional structure shows that a set of deep seated faults was recognized dominating the area in NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW directions. The released faulting occurred in E-W direction. The low angle shallow upthrustings facing north of skin structure in E-W direction dominate the upper part of the rock sequence. The structural analysis revealed the continuous prevailing stress field in SSW-NNE direction since Eocene time. The advancing landslides are readily observable in the rim of the amphitheater of Ciletuh. This phenomenon seems to demonstrate the initial stage (primarumpf) of the geomorphologic cycle taking into account the flat surface of Jampang area in the surroundings. Further investigations revealed the geomorphologic evidences of the formation of plateau, namely the erosion surface, old terraces, mountain tables, old beach ridges and the characteristics of drainage pattern. Two remnants of main plateau were recognized in Ciletuh-Jampang area, namely Bentang Plateau and Jampang Plateau. Further investigations show that at least five locations of plateau were identified in western part of Java Island, namely Dieng Plateau (+ 2,000 m), Pengalengan Plateau (+1,300 m), Bentang Plateau (+ 1,000 m), Jongrangan Plateau (+ 850 m) and Jampang Plateau (+ 700 m). A rough estimation reveals the annual rate of lifting in Java Island since Pliocene time ranges most likely between 5.0 and 5.4cm.

B.K. Sahu   

Estimation of cutoff grade (fractional assay), x(C), in mining of mineral resources is crucial for profit maximization and sustainable growth [7, 8, 9]. It is very complex involving several geological and economic random variables which can be solved assuming the parameters are time-invariant (Static Models) or are time-varying (Dynamic Models). Parametric estimation of cutoff grade, x(C), involves modeling of the assay distribution of the ore (globally and locally) and of the economic random variables such as sale value of marketable ores (s/ton) and cost of production of mineral resource (c/ton). Fractional assay, x where 0< x < 1, of minerals/oxides/elements in rocks and ores is known to possess globally/locally log-normal pdf or some log function of assay is Normal/Gaussian [1,3,4,6] under proper geological/statistical sampling, with the two parameters: mean(μ) and variance(σ²). However, estimation of cutoff grade, x(C), where(x(C) = inverse cdf, F^-1 (x(C))), is a very complex problem for both static and dynamic modeling. A high cutoff induces lower profits as less ore material can be extracted for sale whereas a low cutoff also induces lower profits as a much larger quantity of lower grade ore and waste materials having little sale value have to be handled which increase the cost of mining and processing. Since life of mine is about 15 years or more, all profits must be reduced to net present value (NPV) for economic comparisons and decisions [5]. Static model assumes time-invariant geological, spatial and economic random variables (rv.s) or random vectors needing simpler statistical analysis [4] to estimate the required parameters, whereas dynamic modeling though more realistic and desirable) requires rather complex time series analysis and forecasting procedure [3]. Forecasted values of the predictors from the concerned dynamic model parameters [3] are then used as inputs to the (linearized) regression equation in dynamic model situations. Optimal cutoff grade, x(CO), is therefore a time-step specific and/or block specific random variable which does not have a global value to be computed. Therefore, general solution to optimal grade, x(CO) , under dynamic model is not feasible and hence, not pursued further.

Peter C Chu   

Geostrophic balance represents the minimum energy state in a linear system with conservation of potential vorticity. On the base of that, a minimum energy state (MES) method is proposed to determine dynamic topography (η) and in turn the absolute geostrophic velocity from hydrographic data through finding η to minimize a functional, . Numerical approach leads to a set of well-posed linear algebraic equations of η at grid points. Feasibility and advantage of the MES method are illustrated using the three-dimensional (T, S) data of the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) World Ocean Atlas 2013 version 2 for the North Atlantic Ocean (100^oW-6^oW, 7^oN-72^oN) on 1^o 1^o grids.

Sandhyavitri Ari   Yusa Muhamad   Fajri Mardan   Sutikno Sigit   and Arai Kohei   

This study has demonstrated that the combination of the geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has yield a comprehensive land use mapping and an assessment report of watershed performances. The Tapung watershed located in sub-watershed of Siak, Riau Province, Indonesia was appointed as a study area. This research identified that the existing land use condition (in 2012) was dominated by oil palm plantation (46%), agriculture (24%), and bushes including shrubs (8%), and a small number of forest area (7%). Thus, there was a need for conducting reforestation management programs within the watershed areas in order to maintain the watershed performances. However, based on this study the existing watershed performances (scenario 1) was in the state of moderate conditions as the percentage of the critical coverage areas (PLK) was small (10.41%), with the annual water flow coefficient or water run-off (KRA) was high (0.45). Hence, there was a need to reduce this run-off to become <30% by conducting the watershed management programs. This study also simulated the future of the watershed performances using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). After conducting the conservation programs (scenario 2), it was revealed that the watershed indicators performance would be improved. The results model of this watershed is also considered acceptable as the determination coefficient (R²) = 0.50 > 0.40 and NS = 0.50 > 0.36. Hence, this study confirmed that the GIS, RS, and SWAT were capable for mapping and simulating the watershed performances systematically.

Tzanko Tzankov   Rosen Iliev   Svetla Stankova   and Ilia Mitkov   

The Rhodope Mountain (South Bulgaria-Northeast Greece) is the largest mountain system in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It occupies a median position within the peninsula and thus is close enough to the main tectonic processes in this part of the Eastern Mediterranean (transcontinental collision between the African continental macro plate and Eurasian continental macro plate). This is an important prerequisite for the development of endogenous geodynamic processes with risky nature (earthquakes).The paper presents the results of the study of fractal geometry of the seismic clusters in the Rhodope Mountain. A combined seismic catalog (USGS and IRIS), composed of 640 seismic events (all values) occurring within the mountain massif for the 1965-2016 statistical period, was used in the analysis. Based on the methodology adopted for the calculation of surface fractals, the areas of the individual earthquake clusters were measured and their fractal geometry has been checked. The obtained results confirm the self-organizing nature of the seismic processes operating in the Rhodope region.

Opara, C.   Adizua, O. F.   and Ebeniro, J. O.   

Statics correction was applied to a 3D seismic data acquired from an onshore Niger- delta field. The objective of the study was to derive a statics solution, which will correct for time shifts caused by topographic undulations, velocity anomalies in the near-surface and delayed travel times of the reflection signal through the weathered layer. In a previous study by authors, a near-surface seismic velocity and depth model, consisting of the weathering layer and three consolidated (sub-weathering) layers were first estimated. The first-arrivals were picked and used as input for this study. Statics correction consisting of elevation statics, long-wavelength refraction statics, and short-wavelength (residual statics) refraction statics was applied to the data. Interpretation of results show like differences such as a stronger alignment and coherence of reflection events, as well as an upward time shift of the reflection signals when compared with the input data (no statics applied) and the output data (statics applied).

Tzanko Tzankov   Svetla Stankova   Rosen Iliev   and Ilia Mitkov   

The Middle Struma complex morphostructural passage (N 42°14'62''-41°21'19''; E 24°10'21''-23°20'21'') is a negative landform located in South-West Bulgaria. Represents a negative regional morphounit composed of linear orderly (from north to the south) Dupnitsa morphostructural threshold, Dzherman morphostructural passage, Slatino morphostructural threshold, Mursalevo morphostructural passage, Kocherinovo morphostructural threshold, Riltsi kettle morphostructure, Byalo Pole morphostructural threshold, Blagoevgrad kettle morphostructure, Zheleznitsa morphostructural gorge, Simitli kettle morphostructure, Kresna morphostructural gorge, Sandanski morphostructural passage, Damyanitsa morphostructural threshold, Petrich kettle morphostructure and Rupel morphostructural gorge. The mentioned regional complex morphounits are limited by Bregalnitsa morphostructural zone to the west and the Rila-Pirin morphostrutural range to the east. The Middle Struma complex morphostructural passage is the relict from the post Early Pleistocene orthoplain in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The internal morphostructures of that orthoplain fragment were formed in the same time with the building of the dome-like morphostructures of the Bregalnitsa morphostructural zone and the Rila-Pirin morphostrutural range.

Abdolreza Jafarian   and Susan Jafarian   

Geology of Iran shows an ophiolitic belt around the central Iran micro-continent. One of the main ophiolite suites, with ca. 100km long and 15km wide, located northeastern Iran as Sabzevar ophiolite suite. Ultramafic rocks of this ophiolite suite, display a high concentration of chromium (1000-3000_ppm) as a compatible element, especially in pyroxene group minerals. Average Chromium content of this ophiolite suite in peridotites is 2558_ppm, with maximum 4525_ppm (in pyroxenite) and minimum 832_ppm (in dunite). Dunite layers lie underneath of these ultramafic rocks, containing chromite lenses (FeCr₂O₄) with 20.56wt% Cr₂O₃. Today, about 10 active mining sites excavate ultramafic rocks for chromite ore mineral and altered ultramafic rocks, serpentinite, dump as unconsolidated gangue materials along stream pathways. There is an unconfined aquifer just southern of this ophiolite range containing detrital altered ultramafic rocks with the high concentration of chromium minerals. In this study 23 groundwater samples, collected from unconfined serpentinite alluvium aquifer that shows cumulative increasing Cr towards south because of increasing residence time, and much more water-rock interactions. Total Cr concentrations in this aquifer are from 12 to 61µg/l, higher than normal level of Cr mentioned by WHO (2µg/l). On the other hand, discharging of chromite mine and mineral processing site, contaminate one of drinking well at Forumad village up to 61µg/l of total chromium. Although trivalent Cr is an essential nutrient, in oxidation conditions with increasing Eh and pH, it changes to chromate (CrO₄^-2) and dichromate (Cr₂O₇^2-) as dissolved anions which will be toxic and carcinogenic in groundwater. Based on California EPA Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), 7.2% of total Cr is hexavalent. Recent information indicates that hexavalent chromium varies from 50% to 90% of the total chromium in many water supplies.

Emmanuel Arhin   Musah S. Zango   and Raymond Kazapoe   

As the discovery rate of world-class gold deposits continues to decline, increased attention is focused on geochemical exploration methods designed for regolith-dominated terrains. This involves mapping the regolith and classifying the mapping units into different regolith classes on the basis of weathering and geomorphic histories. The challenges of identifying some regolith mapping units in the field by novice in regolith mapping require the characterization and indexing of regolith from major element geochemistry in the regolith profiles. XRF analytical method was used to measure the weight % of the major oxides in regolith samples. The metal weight % of Mg, K and Al were calculated from their oxides and were normalized relative to immobile Al calculated from its oxide. The plot of Mg/Al and K/Al identified the regolith of the study area to consist of 137 transported clays, 4 ferruginous sediments or ferricrete, 2 lateritic duricrust and 4 saprolites. Plot of Mg/Al and K/Al highlighted the compositional variability of the regolith samples and refute the notion of the homogeneity of all the sampled materials in the area. The study thus recognized Mg/Al versus K/Al plots to be used in supporting field identification of regolith mapping units particularly in complex regolith terrains of savannah regions of Ghana and in similar areas where geochemical exploration surveys are being carried out under cover.

Simona Peteva   Hristina Kalcheva   and Mariyana Lyubenova   

Forest ecosystems cover about 30% of the Earth's surface and provide important ecosystem goods and services. Forest traits: specific leaf area (SLA), leaf weight ratio (LWR) and growth index (It) are among the key indicators of forest ecosystems functioning. The investigation deals with meta-analysis (including ANOVA and RDA analysis) for 20 Bulgarian locations of Quercus cerris L. and Q. frainetto Ten. forests. The results are verified with the data from TRY database. For all analysis as a response, variables are chosen selected indexes - SLA, LWR and It and as explanatory variables - listed characteristics of locations: latitude, longitude, altitude, precipitation and temperature. The positive correlation of growth index and SLA and negative - with altitude for all locations are obtained. The growth index correlated negatively with LWR and positively with longitude only for Bulgarian locations. The established dependences are indispensable for higher precision of the ongoing analyzes, filling the gaps of data and creating a new generation of vegetation models.

Andrey Ozerskiy   

The manuscript deals with the hydrogeological condition of Archean rock massif investigated for underground building of radioactive wastes isolation. Exploration methods included well boring up to depth of 700 m, geophysical logging, hydrogeological pumping tests; water and rock sampling. Pumping tests carried out with systematically scaled intervals of 50 meters isolated by packers. Water samples were tested with chemical methods for main ions, ICP MS for trace elements and for radioactivity. Rock samples were tested in porosity, permeability, chemical composition, physical properties. Rock massif is represented by lower Archean gneisses pierced by dykes of dolerite. All rocks have very low reservoir properties due to an intense metamorphism. Laboratory tests have indicated that an average open porosity is equal to 0.33%. Almost 70% of obtained values of hydraulic conductivity belong to the range of 0.0001 m•day^-1 – 0.001 m•day^-1, while average hydraulic conductivity is equal to 0.004 m•day^-1. There were found four vertical zones depending on the bases of drainage and differing in rock permeability and filtration conditions. The TDS of groundwater varies from 140 to 641 mg•L^-1, the type of water is HCO₃–Na–Ca, water has alkaline and reductive media.

Ilknur Tuncer   

The bacterial diversity and antimicrobial resistance in coastal areas indicate the variability in the community structures and metabolic activities. In the present study, antibiotic susceptibility and phylogenetic analysis of bacteria isolated from stations with different depths and influenced by terrestrial and marine fluxes in eastern Aegean Sea were illustrated. Half of the isolates were found as resistant and 14 percent showed high MAR index indicating the high-risk sources of contamination in the environment. According to 16S rRNA gene analysis, the isolates were found as belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the class Gammaproteobacteria with the genera Bacillus, Halomonas, Oceanobacillus, Photobacterium, Pseudoalteromonas, Psychrobacter and Vibrio. Approximately half of Bacillus strains which were dominant among all isolates were resistant. In addition to phylogenetically diverse bacteria, the variability in resistance, intermediate and high MAR index levels of the study area indicated the effect of geographical differences.

Waleed Eid Olimat   

In this study we determined the local site effect by means of the horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) spectral ratios. The Nakamura's concept (Nakamura Y. 1989) is applied in Zarqa city in order to determine the resonance frequencies and amplification factors for, finding the dynamic characteristics for structural engineering purposes. Results obtained in this study shows that; dominant frequencies F varies between 0.37 Hz and 2.98 Hz in the city area, while, the amplification factor A varies "between" 0.8 to 8.55. This means that structural culture in most localities of the study area might be seriously affected by any of eventually major short periodic earthquakes released by the nearby seismologic active sources westward, except of localities characterized by long periodic dominant frequencies of the study areas, considering that most structures of the study area are characterized by one to three story profiles.

J N Mbogo   and J N Kebu   

Electricity generation from geothermal sources is associated with geothermal fluid extraction and re-injection, resulting in surface changes/displacements horizontally and vertically (uplift or sinking) (Eneva, 2009). Besides, previous geodetic monitoring of geothermal production sites have shown large subsidence and horizontal displacement at tribute to thermal contraction, pressure reduction in the reservoir, and/or changes in the local stress field (Heimlich, Masson, & Gourmelen, 2013). Conventional surveying methods employed to measure the deformations of structures with small and slow displacements have often provided in frequent though precise estimates of these deformations. With the development of high precision GPS methods and Remote Sensing, an alternative method for monitoring structural deformations is available. Continuous GPS measurements technique with its higher temporal resolution is complemented with RADAR remote sensing so as to cover larger areas spatially. Citing case studies, this paper fronts the application of RADAR Remote Sensing complimented with continuous GPS measurements as an ideal way of monitoring deformations of geothermal fields for better geothermal field management. A similar proposition has been forwarded for approval in the management of Olkaria Geothermal Field which houses the largest geothermal power plant in Africa.

Yuri Fiodorovitch Arefjev   

Our changeable world threatens the life of organisms in the nature. To survive, the populations of organisms have to change adequately. They need freedom for adaptive actions. The adaptability gives populations a chance to survive. Man-made forest plantings of the Central Russian Upland do not provide for their forest components the possibility of self-control as they are homogeneous and are the prerequisite for inharmonious development of biota, for the excessive development of some parasitic for forest trees species. Such plantings become the real "kingdom" of forest trees parasitic fungi and insects. Global warming and a wrong human activity can worsen health of the forests even more. A natural renewal in these forest plantings is impossible. The purpose of this work is to promote the natural biotic self-control of pathogenic processes and self-regeneration in forest ecosystems and to exclude thanks to it the need of use of both chemical and biological pesticides for forest protection. One of the key positions of a self-regulation of pathogenesis is inbreeding in populations of parasitic organisms. The self-control in forest plantings is achieved through forming of mosaic highly heterogeneous forest ecosystems. Functionally such plantings are close to the natural woods. Such plantings must be created. It's necessary to understand that the solution of environmental issues has to correspond not only to local, but also global interests.

Noverina Alfiany   Kazuhiro Yamamoto   and Masaji Watanabe   

Shallow water equations were analyzed numerically for simulation of tsunami propagation from the source area to coastal zone of Mentawai Islands along West Sumatra Island. A triangular mesh was set for spatial discretization and a system of partial differential equation is reduced to a system of ordinary differential equations. Initial displacement based on Okada model was applied. Our numerical techniques were demonstrated with a simulation of tsunami generated from an earthquake with epicenter near South Pagai Island, Mentawai Islands, Indonesia.

Lubna A. Amir   and Barbara Theilen-Willige   

In this paper, we present the combination of tsunami modelling studies with a GIS approach to analyse the coastal flooding risk in eastern Algeria. The Jijel and Bejaia regions are well-known for their seismic and tsunami risk. The modelling was carried out with the Geoclaw software. It provided the water flow velocities in addition to water heights results for several points of interest located between the Bejaia and the Jijel coast. The simulations were based on a 7.6 magnitude earthquake offshore the Jijel bay. Maps visualizing the susceptibility to flooding were generated in ArcGIS using the GIS integrated weighted overlay tools. By aggregating and weighting morphometric factors (such as the lowest height levels and lowest slope gradients) influencing the susceptibility to flooding the coastal areas prone to inundations in case of high energetic flood waves (tsunami, storm surge, meteo .tsunami) from the sea side can be determined. The entrances of river mouths are the locations marked by the highest susceptibility to potential flooding.

R. R. Koon Koon   I. Haraksingh   and L. Ufondu   

The paper focuses on the thermal evaluation of geological well data along the Williston Basin, possessing the greatest potential for geothermal energy development. The research follows the criteria for possible electrical generation through binary type systems for medium-temperatures exceeding 80℃. The bottom-hole temperatures (BHTs) obtained from the geological well data are corrected to thermal equilibrium through the Harrison correction method, from which the findings clearly point to the Estevan 103.5'W region, as the best geothermal energy prospect for a binary type system. Three wells having the highest recorded temperatures at depth are seen in particular with well locators of 101/11-14-002-09W2/00, 121/10-28-001-10W2/02, and 141/03-08-001-11W2/00 having temperatures of 106℃, 100℃ and 127℃ at depths respectively. The thermal distribution map serves as a preliminary tool for investigating the potential of the Williston Basin for geothermal energy development. These maps, coupled with hydraulic maps, can be used as an enhanced method of determining prospective site locations for wells. Finally, temperatures above 80℃ were found at depths exceeding 2250m for the Williston Basin, overlying the Winnipeg and Deadwood formations.

Adel Sepehr   Abolfazl Abdollahi   Abbasali Mohammadian   and Mojgan Pashaie Nejad   

Flooding is one of the natural disasters which have effects most areas of the country and caused the loss of life and property; therefore identifying of areas which are sensitivity to flooding is one the most important measures in reducing losses. Classification and prioritization of sub-basins the first step to counter or mitigate the effects of flooding in the drainage basins. On this basis, the purpose of this study was to classify the flooding potential of sub-basins of "Kashafrud" basin in the "Khorasan Razavi" province by the using of ELECTRE-TRI Algorithm as one of the most credible multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) classification techniques based on optimistic procedure and consistency control perspectives. To achieve this, the 1:250,000 topographic map and waterways map of the target area were studied and area was divided into 10 sub-basins, then 8 morph hydrological parameters affecting the flooding potential including basin's form factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, mean basin slope and area were evaluated. After the evaluation, it was found that "Mashhad" and "Torghabe" sub-basins had a high-risk of flooding because of the high value of drainage density and low value of bifurcation ratio in these areas, which both have a higher effect in flooding potential compared to other factors. Toos, Chenaran, Qazqanand ... sub-basins hada low risk of flooding because of the low values of the factors which increase the flooding potential and high values of the factors which decrease it. Results obtained from the original rankings and sensitivity analysis of the results reveals that the ELECTRE TRI method could rank the strategic options of flooding sensitivity. The results of the model in this paper indicate its ability to raise evaluation of flooding criteria in classification of alternatives based on various criteria.

R. R. Koon Koon   and L. Ufondu   

The paper focuses on a mathematical perspective to the behaviour of fractured systems due to the thermo-mechanical effects of geofluid. The research was built on the foundation of other pre-existing work, specifically the concept of considering the fracture as a thick-walled cylinder. The paper presents a novel approach at investigation into a micro-scale realm of fractures from which areas within the rock matrix exhibiting maximum thermal deformation are attained. Hence the thermo-mechanical response of a system can predictively be determined through the applications of the mathematical model. Solutions to the mathematical model are acquired through well core data by the AccuMap software. This generates the extent of deformation of fracture paths at different depth ranges within the Province of Saskatchewan, Canada. Therefore the deformation distribution maps serve as a preliminary tool for investigating the response of formations to fluid flow. In addition, these maps can be coupled with heat flow and hydraulic maps for an enhanced method of determining site locations for greater output of the reservoir through injection and production wells. The area of interest within the depth range 2500m-3000m yields a region of high deformation West of Estevan, localized southwards along the Williston Basin.

Christine Mutua   and Mark Boitt   

The paper looks into the analysis of water spatial accessibility by pastoralists in Kajiado County. Since it's a pastoralist area, the demand for water is essential, but due to climate change, the area experiences erratic rains, extreme temperatures and cyclic and prolonged droughts. The need to access improved water supply is considered to boost economic development poverty alleviation. With inadequate water harvesting structures, integrated journal positions the need to excavate more water pans which require a systematic study to come up with the suitable positions where excavation will occur. To come up with a commendable finding and analysis, the paper gives a methodology for data collection identifying relevant factors affecting citing of water. The factors incorporated in questionnaires were slope, soils, location of pastures, villages, existing water points and grazing routes. Therefore, both critical and descriptive discussion of the field's issues is warranted. From the suitability analysis, of the county's land mass 3.06% is in very highly suitable, 28.67% is highly suitable, 67.98% is moderately suitable and 0.29% is not suitable. The comparative analysis shows that the new water pans are established in moderately suitable area. The study concludes by crediting the need to attributed GIS analysis and spatial modeling for the purpose of helping the County Government effort to provide sustainable water pans to its people.

D.C. Naskar   

Magnetotelluric (MT) and resistivity methods have been carried out over the geothermal region of Bakreswar, West Bengal to obtain a preliminary idea about the nature of conductivity structure and to prepare a meaningful conceptual model of the geothermal region. One conductive anomaly zone is mapped along resistivity traverse Bakreswar-Asanshuli at "n" (separation parameter) =10 in between 1200-1500 m station. Bakreswar hot spring lies adjacent to it and geologically it may be the source of it controlled by hidden fault. In resistivity traverse from Chandrapur to Tantipara, the presence of subsurface conductive bodies (50-400 Ohm-m) mapped between stations 1000-1200 m at a pseudo depth of 400-700 m. This may be the structural breaks like shear zones/geothermal region. The high resistive layer below conductive layer is interpreted by MT survey at a depth of 3001-38103 m showing its occurrence at a shallow depth of 3001 m at Rajnagar but a greater depth of 38103 m at Nakrakonda. This steep gradient in between these two stations could possibly be attributed to a fault zone. Similar type of fault is inferred in between Belsara (7484 m) and Nakrakonda (38103 m). The steep gradient observed between stations also may be coincident with the postulated fault plane. One highly conductive zone is observed in MT pseudo-sections, which may be due to the geothermal zone in the area. Some static shift is evident from the vertical elongations of the apparent resistivity contours (zone of weakness) between Idgachha to Rasunpur region which are not reflected in the phase pseudo-sections. This may be due to the presence of faults/lineament/fracture/shear zone. A high conductive feature is inferred beneath Lokpur and Idgachha region extending from shallow surface into the deep crust. The lower crust in the entire study area is rather conductive whereas the upper crust is resistive.

Mark Kipkurwa Boitt   and Patrick Ambi Odima   

Many countries face desertification as a challenge, and Kenya is not an exception to this. Desertification means an intensification of desert like conditions and a decline in biological productivity. The Princeton University Dictionary defines it as “the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture”. Desert areas are usually sparsely populated, because it is very difficult to carry out most productive human activities such as farming, and also due to the harsh weather conditions. Often, desertification leads to the migration of human and animal populations to more productive areas. This causes overpopulation in the more productive areas, giving rise to more problems. Remote Sensing techniques have proven to be effective, and have been used worldwide for environmental studies. The availability of free data from satellites such as Landsat has provided a cheap and efficient method of conducting such studies. Thus it is necessary to use current, efficient and cheap methods such as Remote Sensing technology in order to assess desertification trends in the country. Many parameters have been used globally to assess desertification, and those used in this study include NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, TGSI (Topsoil Grain Size Index) and Albedo. The aim of this research was to assess desertification dynamics in Machakos County, Kenya. The period of this assessment was between 1990 and 2010. It is realized that desertification can be mapped using the methods of NDVI, TGSI and Albedo. Environmental, human and social activities are factors that determine the desertification of a given area or region.

S. Karna   and A. K. Mallik   

In this paper, we constructed a 3-D numerical model of the Earth-Sun geometry. Our model defines Earth's orbit as an inclined plane of spherically symmetric system. We calculated the degree of the tilt of the Earth orbit to the ecliptic plane by converting from ecliptic frame of reference to the orbital frame of reference and then we made all the measurement. Initial inputs of our model are aphelion and perihelion parameters. It is interesting to examine that our results obtained from Earth inclined orbit are same that observed value from Earth's circular orbit. In other words, values of the axial tilt of Earth and Sun, the time taken for the Sun to move from vernal equinox to autumnal equinox and then back to the vernal equinox does not change. Moreover, we were also able to derive mathematical relations for finding the length of the apparent solar days throughout the year. On introducing the new types of the length of the day, called Saurya day, the rate of precession of equinox is calculated.

Christian Vérard   Gérard Stampfli   Gilles Borel   and Cyril Hochard   

Since the 1970's, the Cretaceous–Cenozoic migration of the India subcontinent is fairly well-established. Seafloor magnetic anomalies in the Indian Ocean allow positioning the subcontinent during this time frame. India broke-up slowly from Antarctica in the Early Cretaceous, speed up (~18-20 cm/year) in the Late Cretaceous, and then slow down (~5 cm/year) in the early Cenozoic, a period for which geologists report the first evidences of the India–Eurasia collision leading to the formation of the Himalayan–Tibetan Orogen. However, fossil records as well as biogeography deduced from molecular phylogeny cast a doubt on the tectonicists' confidence on their palaeopositions, because faunal evidences support India as a 'biotic ferry' from its break-up from Gondwana in the Jurassic and then connectivity between Asia and India as early as the Cretaceous. The two types of observations can be reconciled if an Indian Promontory formed when India separated from Australia and Antarctica. In our plate tectonics model, the Indian Promontory drifted northward together with the Indian plate from the Cretaceous, but collided as early as the Campanian with Eurasia, id est about 40 Ma before the northern margin of 'Greater India' collide and form the Himalayas. The proposed Indian Promontory can therefore solve the paradox of having evidences for early land connectivity between India and Asia, the need of excluding unrealistic 'Greater India' (i.e. 4000-4500 km at ca. 80 Ma), and the need of having a plate tectonic scenario consistent with geological records (subsidence curves, exotic origin of terranes from the promontory), geophysical records (age and structure of the Argo Abyssal Plain), and geodynamical consideration about stress transmission of forces acting at plate boundaries.

Pêlèmayo R. Touré   Georges K. Kouadio   Urbain K. Koffi   and Véronique Yoboué   

From January 2005 to December 2009, a total of 457 and 444 samples were collected respectively rains in humid savannas of Djougou and Lamto. Using Henry's law, we determined the content in the air of the major organic monoacid (HCOOH and CH3COOH) from their concentration in rainwater. At Lamto, annual partial pressure of formic acid (FA) and acetic acid (AA) on the five year study is very little variable. It covers a range of 0.1 ppbv and 0.2 ppb to 0.4 to 0.7 ppbv respectively for formic acid (FA) and acetic acid (AA). While in Djougou, it is very variable. It varies from 0.01 to 0.19 ppbv to formic acid (FA) and 0.04 to 0.54 ppbv to acetic acid (FA). For both stations, it is a two times higher in the dry season than the wet season factor. This difference is related to the enrichment of a monoacid organic acid content in the air by supplying various sources of these acids. However, the correlation analysis that enables the production of formic acid (FA) and acetic acid (AA) Djougou like Lamto is not related to the marine source although the latter is close to the Gulf of Guinea.

Keshav Dev Singh   

The spectral unmixing in the thermal infrared (TIR) region is not a linear case. For simplicity, the spectral mixing for pixel deconvolution is assumed to be linear, but in reality, the intimate mixture spectra are non-linear. The multiple scattering effects due to texture and fabric do affect the spectral shape and form. In this paper, the uncertainties in unmixing of TIR hyperspectral image cube are investigated.

T. A. Bazlova   and N. V. Bocharnikov   

The MeteoExpert system was operational at the Main Operations Center of Sochi-2014 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The MeteoExpert provided information support round the clock for forecasters, referees and organizers of the Olympic and Paralympic Games via MeteoExpert web site and FROST-2014 web site. The MeteoExpert generated pointwise time series of meteorological variables for five Olympic venues in mountain cluster with four hour lead time and update cycle of ten minutes. They were based on local observations including automatic weather stations (AWS) and Doppler weather radar, and numerical atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) model. Nowcasts have been verified against actual observations at the sites where automatic weather stations exist.

Asuman Kahya   and Mustafa Kuşcu   

Host rock of magnesite occurrences in three areas (Süleymaniye, Margı, Tutluca) are the altered peridotite which on the northernmost outcrops of the İzmir-Ankra suture zone. Magnesite is formed in the cracks and fractures of highly altered harzburgite in these three areas. Chrysotile and lizardite are the abundant serpentinite mineral and orthopyroxene, olivine, magnetite, talc, brucite and chromite consist of these rocks which have mesh to hourglass texture. Source of Mg⁺² for magnesite formation is coming from serpentinite. During serpentinization processes H₂O and CO₂ input mineralogic structure and form mineral transform. H₂O content in system increases, MgO, CaO and SiO₂ content decreases because of remove the systems. According to mineralogic association serpentinization of harzburgite occurs low temperature below 350℃ and represents the open system serpentinization condition. These rocks show positive La, Nd, Eu, Ho, Tm, Lu anomalies but negative Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Er, Yb anomalies to chondrite/normalize diagram. REE content of serpentinite are consumed according to chondrite. According to mineralogical and geochemical properties is these rock related to the SSZ type ophiolities.

Thomas M. Hanna   Eric Sundberg   and Gabriel Hayden   

The Greens Creek Mine is located on Admiralty Island, near Juneau Alaska. It is one of the nation's largest silver producers, with a projected 10-year mine life. Bedrock in the vicinity of the mine consists of relatively impermeable argillites. The only reliable water source for the mine and milling operations is the alluvium along the narrow stream bed of Greens Creek. The original source water for the mine consisted of three wells competed in the shallow alluvium of Greens Creek. However, the wells were too shallow and became ineffective in providing an adequate water supply due to freezing in the winter causing aufeis conditions and sediment production at times when the creek was experiencing high run off. In 2009 the wells were replaced with an infiltration gallery completed in the stream bed that would not be affected by the bedload movement and freezing that would damage the intakes and reduce capacity in the winter months. Estimates of the production from a bed mounted infiltration gallery were used to determine screen length and configuration in the streambed to provide a minimum of 3,800 m³/day water supply needed by the mine. A Johnson Screens, Muni-pak screen was selected as the intake to address problems that might occur with excessive stream bed erosion that occurs during large storm events and provide filtration during periods of high flow and turbidity. The main challenge during the construction phase was to maintain the 3,800 m³/day flow to the mine and mill operations while decommissioning the old well system and installing the new infiltration gallery. During construction, Greens Creek was diverted and the infiltration gallery was excavated, installed in the streambed and connected to the existing stilling well. The new system has been operational for about 2 years without problems at a capacity of 3800 m³/day with minimal drawdown in the stilling well.

Ureel S. D.   Momayez M.   and Liu Y.   

Slope failures and shallow landslides occur due to shallow subsurface flow convergence, soil saturation and shear strength reduction following a heavy rainfall. The semi-arid environment of southern Arizona (AZ) experiences a significant increase in precipitation during the summer. As a result, the soil moisture increases the potential for slope failure due to water table fluctuation and pore pressure escalation. In this paper, the relationship between soil moisture distribution and topography information (slope angle, topography wetness index) is examined using the topography wetness index, NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) images and cokriging. Using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated from remote sensing images, the slope stability analysis is performed in a typical semi-arid environment area using data from the Waternut Gulch Experimental Watershed in Tombstone, AZ. Conclusions and future research are provided at the end of the paper.

N. Neofitou   

Fish are attracted to floating structures, including coastal cage fish farms, sometimes in dense aggregations. To understand the influence of aquaculture on wild fish stocks, three samplings were carried out by fishing bait and trammel netting around two Eastern Mediterranean farms. A total number of 54 individuals belonging to 12 species were captured. Striped mullet, salema and white trevally were the species that consumed pellets in great quantity. The results of this preliminary study indicates that feeding behavior of wild fish around fish cages can have important ecological consequences on reducing the environmental effects of aquaculture in Pagasitikos gulf.

Tanjinul Hoque Mollah   and Takaaki Nihei   

This paper emphasizes on planning and spatial distribution of NGO's provided services as education, agricultural sector, micro credit, health and sanitation to the rural poor people at districts level along the river side of Jamuna, Bangladesh. This study used satellite images from 1975 to 2015 years to identify the spatial and temporal dynamics of alluvial char as well as making the plan for the NGOs distribution to ensure the proper services for the rural poor. Every year the char land shifts due to multi-channel river flow, local topography, flood, erosion and sedimentation into the river bed as well as braided characteristics of the Jamuna River as a consequences severe damage to the agriculture, infrastructure, vegetation cover and so on. The rural poor along the river side of Jamuna suffers a lot as because they are not stable in a char land and consequently shifting one char land to another so that it requires a long term policy for the betterment of the char lands people's livelihood. The rural poor people live in remote areas that are often huge distances from centers of commerce and social services areas as a result difficulties in accessing market opportunities rural people don't get proper health facilities as well as increase high levels of illiteracy. The poor suffer from hunger, ill health, a lack of education and other environmental vulnerabilities. For all of these reasons, this paper makes a plan for sustainable development and for the optimal distance from the centers of commerce and social services areas along the river side of Jamuna, Bangladesh.

Mostafia Boughalem   Kacem Moussa   and Mansour Zaagane   

Topo-sequential analysis based on data of: clay analysis, climate, vegetation, geology and geomorphology of soil. This allows identifying different types of soil in Misserghin area. Our results show the presence of three types of soil as following: (i) The Iron siallitic soils founded at the bottom of Murdjadjo Mountain. It corresponds to an agrological poor quality land. It is situated in a medium depth. These soils have one or more adverse characters that can be developed in a modest way; (ii) The Alluvial soils, which occupying the plain of Misserghin on a medium slopes, these corresponds to an agrological good quality land, (iii) The Saline sodic soils (or salino-sols) which are founded in the downstream part of the catchment area (in the proximity of the Sebkha) and they showed very poor agrological quality. The key recommendation in relation to the development of agriculture in the north of the Oran Great Sebkha, is the concentration of farming activities in the alluvial soils that have good agrological quality land where the slope is delivering an average vast plain like the Misserghin plain. This area served as a model of cultural aptitudes of studies based on a thin topo-sequential analysis.

G. Srinivas Reddy   K. Vinay Kumar Reddy   and B. Sreenivasa Reddy   

Natural background gamma radiation levels were measured using a NaI crystal based survey meter in different type's granite slab environs. These levels are found to vary between 2015 µGy y^-1 and 2716 µGy y^-1 with an average of 2270 µGy y^-1. This study establishes that usage of the granites as a flooring material in the building construction industry in the city like Hyderabad may not pose any additional radiation burden on the population.

Murat Yakar   Ali Ulvi   and Ahmed Suat Toprak   

Cavity extending into a hillside or rock is named as a cave. If the caves occur during hardening of rocks, they are called as the first group cave. Volcanic caves, lava tubes, lava caves, coral caves are this kind of caves. If the caves occur as a result of mechanical and chemical erosion of the rocks, they are called as the second group cave. Turkey has many caves due to the nature of different land. Many of them are unknown, even if a small part of them are known, the information cannot be taken from them adequately. Some undesirable effects can occur such as slowing down in the formation and development of caves, algae formation because the caves are vulnerable to the human impact. Therefore, in touristy caves, it is necessary to employ many engineering applications to protect the caves and visitors. Maps with high details are needed for these applications. The methods used to produce maps of the cave vary according to the structure of the cave. However, together with today's changing and evolving technology, used tools and equipment in the cave mapping vary as well. The aim of this study was to measure the availability of terrestrial laser scanners in removing the three-dimensional model of the caves and to provide solutions to the problems encountered. It is understood that the terrestrial laser scanners are usable for the cave mapping and method that allows the users to obtain accurate and detailed information for the objects that are scanned in a little while at the end of the study.

E. Petrič   I. L. Schlacht   and B. Foing   

Space can inspire art, and art can inspire space missions. Many artists are inspired by space as a topic to create art, but what would happen if we involved these artists to be part of a space mission? To investigate the potential of involving artists with scientists to perform a space mission, a mission simulation was performed at ESTEC technical centre of the European Space Agency in the ExoLab module on 29 April 2015 as part of a program of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG) [1, 2, 3]. The artist Eva Petrič was invited to take part in the mission simulation in the position of the crew's Health and Safety officer. During the simulation, Eva experienced a strong feeling of isolation. The simulation inspired the artist to propose two art projects aimed at offering emotional support to a potential space crew: the Earthling's mark, a series of tattoos, and DBE xx xy, a unisex fragrance o keep the astronauts in tune with the Earthling in them. The projects were accepted for the poster presentation at the EPSC 2015 conference, which also involved artists for the first time. This paper presents the work of Eva Petrič as a form of communication inspired by space and as a form of communication created in space. In conclusion, art is considered a form of communication that can be related to the artist's perception of personal emotion. Performing art related to space and in space could inspire new forms of communication and lead to socio-cultural evolution.

Majid Khan   Shahid Nawaz   Munawar Shah   and Muhammad Hasan   

Structural delineation and Stratigraphic evaluation of proven geological basins are of prime importance for hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. The current study aims to map the subsurface geology in a part of Lower Indus basin of Pakistan in terms of structure and stratigraphy using seismic data with some borehole information. In this paper, conventional integrated geophysical technique has been used to analyze the seismic data to characterize reservoir formations. To pursue the interpretation, 2D seismic data in SEG-Y format was used along with velocity and well logs information. Visual interpretation of seismic profiles is transformed into 2D and 3D (Time and Depth domain) contour maps, which is the representation of true subsurface geology. Three promising closures at shallow time have been identified on structural contour maps which are indicative of possible prospects. A closure, covering approximately 1 Sq. Km area over Eocene aged Sui Main Limestone and further two over Cretaceous aged Lower Goru formation covering areas of 500 and 400 Sq. km along shot point 260 and 380-390, respectively. Conjugate normal fault system among the stratigraphic layers existing in the study area can smoothly provide the hydrocarbon trapping mechanism. In order to further confirm the probable future prospects and support the study, modeling of P and S wave Acoustic Impedance have also been done. The advance integrated study of AVO modeling and numerical rock physics analysis may be helpful in providing further insights into current research.

Omotoye S. J.   Fadiya S. L.   and Adesiyan T. A.   

Sedimentological study and petrographic analyses were carried out on thirty ditch cutting samples from well-S, Niger Delta, Nigeria, with the aim of determining the provenance and depositional environment of the sediments. The samples were subjected to soxhlet extraction for the removal of soluble organic matter from them and particle size analyses using Pipette and Emery sedimentation techniques in order to determine the grain size distribution of the sediments. Separation of heavy of mineral from the samples was done with the aid of bromoform to enable petrographic analyses of the heavy mineral suite, under the polarising microscope. The data obtained from the grain size analysis were used in preparing histograms, from which some simple statistical parameters were derived. Graphic mean values obtained range between 0.74 and 2.64 Ø, which implies that the sediments are predominantly fine-medium grained. The inclusive standard deviation values ranges from 0.53 to 1.24 Ø, indicating that the sediments are moderately well sorted to moderately sorted. Inclusive graphic skewness values of 0.29 to 0.70 indicate that the sediments ranges from finely skewed to strongly finely skewed and the graphic kurtosis values of 0.61 to 1.54 shows that the sediments are predominately very platykurtic which implies a low energy environment of deposition. The polymodal nature displayed by the histograms indicates that the sediments have been derived from various sources. The study concluded that the sediments were deposited in a fluvial environment. It also established that the sediments originate from metamorphic and acid igneous rocks of the Nigeria Basement Complex and mineralogically mature to sub-mature.

Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam   

Fluvial channel form and its dynamics over the period of time have been a major interest of study in fluvial geomorphology. The present study deals with the fluvial morphological characteristics of the Padma River in northwestern Bangladesh. Morphological and morpho-dynamic maps of the Padma River were prepared using remote sensing techniques. Sinuosity ratio, braided index and island percentage of the study area were estimated for the year of 1977, 1989 and 2000 respectively. Results showed a remarkable change in position of bank and channel as well as bars along with their geometry and morphology over time. Result also demonstrates that the bank line is unstable and migrated continuously towards westward in the recent decades. In addition, the study reveals that overall width of the Padma River is varied significantly during the last 23 years. Different maps and Landsat images (band 4) depict that the river shifting is abnormal which is alarming for the existence of the study area people. Outcomes of this study obtained from investigating satellite remote sensing imagery provide valuable information about the bank erosion and channel shifting of fluvial morphology of the Padma River and to recommend some protective measures.

Tanjinul Hoque Mollah   Jannatul Ferdaush   Sharmin Shishir   Xiao Kun   and Md Shahedur Rashid   

Ancient historical illustrations are the main introduction of any area which develops the civilization, cultural importance of the region. Wari is the most important archaeological illustration which enriches the history, culture of the surroundings of Bangladesh. As a riverine country continuous cyclone, river bank erosion, flood, landslide and other natural disasters have altered our ancient civilization since the beginning. For this reason many enriched ancient civilization and culture have engraved by rivers and our ancient arts, culture and civilization are ruined. Currently the major problem of archaeological sites is that there is no geo-spatial database prepared so far. This study therefore, is attempted to prepare a geo-spatial database on archaeological sites like Wari Bateshwar region to develop metadata, relevant information and geo-tagged photos having spatial references to fulfill the purpose of exploring and surveying archaeological sites as well as to develop a methodological framework which documents physical and cultural aspects. Primary data have been used for this study was collected through mainly field observation, interviewing and GPS survey according to predesigned information collection sheet. In this study, total 52 archaeological sites have been identified where only two are recognized by government and rests of them are unrecognized. Satellite navigation data and remote sensing imagery were also integrating with the information collection sheet. Detailed metadata and geo-tagged photos on the each archaeological site contains spatial references has been developed which will help understanding further work on archaeological sites. The govt., academic departments and the NGOs should come forward to fulfill the recommendations in the study.

Okan Özbakır   and Erkin Nasuf   

We aim to estimate concrete compressive strength by using the physical properties of the aggregates that are the main components of concrete. For this aim, concrete samples were prepared with aggregates having different origins and characteristics obtained from different 10 locations of the Marmara region. The compressive strength's results obtained by changing the aggregates were compared by ensuring the other components forming the concrete remained constant. 330 separate experiments were conducted to determine the physical characteristics of the aggregates, and these characteristics were used as input data in a multi layer Feed Forward Network model. The compressive strength of 7 and 28 days of the concrete obtained from the experiments were used as output in to a Multi-layer Feed Forward model. The training and test results from the models coincided closely with experimental results; also, the results were compared to the estimations made with a linear regression method.

Rana Shiri   Aliasghar Siabeghodsy   and Reza Sabzi   

Biomarkers are very useful tools for paleontologists, especially where the undistinguishable organic matters like Tabriz lignites cannot be attributed to particular fossils. In this study, the important detected biomarkers in Tabriz lignite beds are Oleananes (Olean-12- ene and Friedelane), beta carotene, Dibenzofuran and Gibberellic acid. The results indicate angiosperm higher and lower plants entering from adjacent areas into the lake sedimentary environment of the lignite beds. No biomarker of gymnosperm was found. The short chain even n-alkanes (C18 and C20) imply the contribution of marine microorganisms, C23 normal alkane is derived from terrestrial plants specially Sphagnum leaf wax, the existing simple methyl saturated alkanes (C11-C22) is derived from cyanobacteria and algae and thiophene formed by sulfate reducing bacteria. Thus, Tabriz lignite have two extrabasinal and intrabasinal origins that the first is made of the higher (angiosperms) and lower terrestrial plants have transported by runoffs into the basin and the second origin is made of seagrasses, cyanobacteria and algae within the lignite beds basin.

Gintarė Slavinskienė   and Arūnas Jurevičius   

The study based on the thermodynamic computer programme PHREEQC presents changes in migration forms of heavy metals in groundwater calculated based on the changing pollution of groundwater under the hydrogeological conditions of a landfill (sandy aquifer). Under neutral medium conditions, as the pollution of shallow groundwater and the content of organic matter decrease, the amounts of heavy metals in ionic form is found to increase considerably. The intensive pollution zone shows the highest percentage of migration forms of carbonates. Furthermore, the formation of organochlorines causes the formation of migration forms of cadmium chloride in the intensive pollution zone. The calculated saturation index values show that crystallization plays the main role in heavy metal attenuation in glaciofluvial alluvial aquifers.

Surya Prakash Kapoor   and Aastha Kapoor   

Temperature is the most sensitive parameter in hydrocarbon generation. None of the sediments will pass through the whole maturation process unless the initial geothermal gradient is greater than 33.7℃/km. Corresponding to this value of geothermal gradient the terrestrial heat flux value comes out to be 67.4 milli W/m²/s. Fortunately, the terrestrial heat flux map for India is readily available in the geothermal atlas of India (1991 edition). Simultaneously, the sedimentary basins map of India prepared by director general hydrocarbons, manifesting there in 26 sedimentary basins is also available. During exploration, so far only 13 sedimentary basins have yielded favorable results and the efforts in case of remaining 13 basins went futile. In order to solve this predicament of reducing the risk in exploration we have proposed to amalgamate both the maps to prepare a common map which will be far more useful and can be further extended to global scale.

Marinko Oluic   

Broader region of the Zagreb city is seismotectonically very active. In that region are located several epcentral areas with strong earthquakes. The most active is Medvednica Mountain near Zagreb city. The main cause of these earthquakes is major intersecting faults with longitudinal (NW-SE) and transverse (NE-SW) strike. The LANDSAT digital processed images were used for seismotectonical analysis and registration of different tectonical elements, particularly major faults and ring structures in this region. The earthquake epicentres occurred more often along these faults and at their intersections, which have various orientations. This fact could be valuable for local governments to help in city planning and capital investments in infrastructure and construction.

W.X. Zhang   Q. Zhu   J. Hu   J.H. Gu   and S.L Yang   

Measurements of suspended sediment concentration (SSC) and particle size (PS) are very significant in the study of sediment transport in estuarine and coastal areas. The multifrequency acoustic backscatter system (ABS) can be applied to measure the boundary layer SSC and PS profiles using backscatter strength data. The experiments in this study were conducted using an ABS equipped with sensors at multiple frequencies (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 MHz) in a test tank system in the laboratory. The fine sediment (average particle size < 20 µm) and coarse sediment (average particle size > 100 µm) used in the experiment were obtained from the Changjiang Estuary. The results were as follows: A linear relationship between the time-averaged strength of the backscatter measured by the ABS and the square root of SSC was detected; Different inverse models used to calculate SSC (IASC, IAMC, EASC) and PS (IAMP) from ABS data exhibited different patterns, and appropriate calibration or regression approaches should be used to obtain reliable results; The SSC and PS results for the field sediment indicate that the ABS is potentially applicable in coastal and estuarine areas, especially in the fine sediment environment. Further experiments are required to model sediment suspension in different environments, particularly with regard to the uncertainty of various PSs in the water column.

Craig Loehle   

Multidecadal climate variability has proven difficult to deal with when estimating temperature trends. This possible unforced internal oscillation of the climate system provides an opportunity to correct temperature trends. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is proposed as a potential index for this unforced variability. The AMO pattern does not appear to correspond to forcing histories used by the IPCC. Subtracting a scaled version of the AMO from the Hadley global temperature data produced damped decadal-scale fluctuations in the temperature data. The adjusted dataset is highly correlated with the anthropogenic forcing history from IPCC AR5. The linear post-1970 temperature trend is 0.83℃/century vs. 1.63℃/century for the raw data. Thus almost exactly half of the post-1970 warming is possibly natural. The use of the AMO as an index of unforced variability is supported by the fact that subtracting it simplifies the temperature response by damping the peaks and troughs consistently.

Morosanu Gabriela Adina   Aniss Moumen   and Mohamed Ben-Daoud   

This study aims to examine the accessibility and performance of Romania and Bulgaria in the context of the European Water Directive and their location on the Black Sea coast. To meet this main goal, the analysis was conceived from the standpoint of the existence, implementation and utility of water information systems in these two neighboring countries. Therefore, we took into consideration the projects which have been done so far in the field of the water information systems in Romania and Bulgaria, but we also highlighted the differences between these two states from the point of view of the complexity, and efficiency of their regional unification. To facilitate the study, we focused on the most important projects governed by the European legislation in the hydrological field. These European or national projects aimed at improving the management of information, alert and conservation of water resources in the hydrological and hydrogeological common space of these two countries have been comparatively analyzed. Finally, some perspectives are proposed for a better design of the hydrological projects which main purpose should be the protection and higher – quality research of the water resources in Romania's and Bulgaria's hydrological border area.

S. H. Waziri   C. O. Okogbue   N. M. Waziri   and I. N. Abdullahi   

The geology and groundwater condition of the area was studied with the aim of understanding their impact on the instability of the road in the study area. These include the petrology, geophysics and groundwater fluctuation (percentage in water table fluctuation). The methodology included geological field mapping, thin section preparation, resistivity and water table monitoring in dry and wet seasons. The study reveals that the road is underlain by schist, amphibolites and poorly fractured granite with quartz, biotite, hornblende and muscovite as the constituent minerals. The rocks have been altered through weathering to clayey minerals with resistivity values as low as 14 Ohm with the depth of weathering as high as 20 meter especially in the schist. The percentage of groundwater variation ranges between 154% and 2400% indicating medium to very high percentage of variation of groundwater fluctuation. These clay minerals absorb water and swell during the raining season and dry during the dry season. The result is the instability of the road pavement especially within the schist and where the elevation is lower. Proper design of the road and the provision of good drainage that will reduce the ingress of water are advised.

Frankie K. K. Wong   and Tung Fung   

Knowledge of spatial distribution of faunal species is crucial to prioritize conservation resources. While vulnerable or endangered species are usually well-protected, common species were always overlooked. Traditional survey represented species distribution by discrete points, which is precise but often limited in applicability for conservation analysis. This study combined remote sensing; geographical information analytical tools and well-established multivariate statistical modelling to predict habitats of fifty common and representative animal species. Reliable ground data records from terrestrial biodiversity survey were collected and ecological niche factor analysis was used to identify pseudo-absence sites essential for habitat statistical models. Binary logistic regression models and generalized additive models were used to predict the faunal habitats. Species-richness map was then produced to identify biodiversity hotspots and possible conservation gaps of the current conservation system. Results from gap analysis showed that only 1% of faunal species richness hotspots coincided with existing protected sites of special scientific interest (SSSI). 45% of species-rich sites were under-protected. The results not only identified deficiency of existing protection system, where extra conservation planning efforts should be considered, but also highlighted the direction for future development to minimize the land use conflicts. Integration of geoinformatics and statistical analysis with ecological knowledge assist timely conservation policy making.

Akindulureni John Olaolu   Adepelumi Adekunle Abraham   and Ebiko Olatunde   

Magnetic, self-potential (SP) and Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) methods were employed to investigate the near-surface conditions beneath a road in Obafemi Awolowo University Campus, Ile-Ife with the aim of mapping previously suspected dyke, fractures, buried utilities in the area. Fifty stations were established for the magnetic and SP methods along five and four traverses respectively while GPR data was acquired along three traverses, all parallel to the general strike of the rocks in the area (NW-SE). The magnetic and SP readings obtained were interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively using least-squares to identify the location/trends and determine source parameters of features of interest. Also, GPR sections were analyzed using basic radar processing tools. The magnetic field readings ranged from -310nT to 220nT while the SP readings with range -126mV to 55mV. The anomaly source was delineated on low closures on the iso-magnetic map while the inflexion points on the SP profiles lie above the target source. Results of quantitative interpretation of magnetic and SP anomalies revealed a spherical, sub-vertical source with depth to top values of 1.6m to 3.85m. The radargrams revealed the positions and depths of utilities such as pipes and cables, shallow-dipping fractures, a road culvert and partially weathered bedrock layers overlying fresh basement in the area. The penetration depth of the GPR was 14 m and the depth to top of the basement ranged from 4 m to 6 m. The techniques employed mapped the subsurface structural/cultural features in the study area and determined their positions and depth extents.

Goro A. I.   Okosun E. A.   Salihu H. D.   and Tenimu S.   

Analysis of intermediate-scale reservoir heterogeneity in a well exposed outcrop analogue of a point bar deposit within the Enagi Formation was carried out in order to reveal its reservoir dimensions. The study area is located in northern part of Bida basin, Nigeria. Three lithofacies were identified: (1) conglomerate facies interpreted as channel lag deposits; (2) epsilon and trough cross-bedded, fine to medium grained, sandstone facies interpreted as products of lateral accretion and 3D migration of subaqueous dunes in a mixed-load channel system; and (3) mudstone facies recording overbank deposits. Outcrop measurements reveal reservoir dimensions as follows: 1) bankfull channel depth of 3.9 m; 2) bankfull channel width of 31.5 m; 3) reservoir width (meander amplitude) of 132 m; and 4) reservoir length (meander wavelength) of 911 m. Analysis of internal lithologic variability within the point bar deposit allowed the detection of three main internal reservoir heterogeneities. They include: a) vertical reservoir heterogeneity resulting from overall fining-up trend within the point bar deposits; b) small scale vertical heterogeneity owing to fining-up grain size within each lateral accretion unit; c) lateral reservoir compartmentalization due to mud-drapes observed on some of the lateral accretion surfaces. Information provided in this work has implications for improved computation of Stock Tank Oil in Place (STOIP) at the initial stage of exploration and in planning of well spacing during development and production stages. This work, also suggests that field measurements on outcrop analogues combined with empirical computation of reservoir dimensions provides valuable information useful at all stages of exploration and development of an oil field.

Babangida Jibrin   and Isah Aliyu Goro   

Techniques for detecting discontinuities by computing the absolute maximum curvature of seismic traces have been applied to a 3D seismic data acquired in the deep-water Niger Delta. Volumetric dip and azimuth of the seismic traces were computed from the primary seismic reflection data and structurally improved to highlight discontinuities based on the changes in dip trends that may be due to structural deformation. The dip data was used with the seismic reflection data to compute the absolute maximum curvature of the seismic traces using the concept of dip-steering. The attributes detected a WNW-ESE trending zone of dip and curvature anomalies representing discontinuities related to folding and thrusting in the area. These anomalies are hardly visible in the seismic reflection data. The workflow demonstrates the usefulness of volumetric seismic dip and curvature computation in rapid analysis of discontinuities prior to detail structural interpretation.

M. Farhaduzzaman   M. A. Islam   W. H. Abdullah   and Md Shofiqul Islam   

The aim of this research was to evaluate petrographic characteristics of the Tertiary Surma Group sandstone reservoirs. The diagenetic constituents, processes and their impacts on reservoir quality were evaluated. A total of 33 core samples collected from 8 different wells located in 7 different gas fields of Bangladesh were used for the current study. The standard petrographic microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM/FESEM) and XRD were used in the current study. The framework grains, mineralogy, matrix, pore properties and cements were identified and counted properly. The framework grains were in accordance to dominance quartz (76-91%), rock fragments (5-16%) and feldspar (3-14%). The identified important diagenetic components were quartz cements, authigenic clays, carbonate cements and dissolution. The early to intermediate stage of the diagnostic realm was estimated in the studied samples, e.g., mechanical compaction, chloritization, carbonate precipitation, dissolution, quartz overgrowth and authigenesis of clays. The reservoir quality was not much affected by the effects of diagenesis. However, it seems to be controlled mostly by the mechanical compaction including its grain size, sorting and fabric. In addition the authigenic cements slightly modified its porosity and permeability status during diagenesis. The measured average thin section porosity and its permeability suggested good to excellent reservoir quality for hydrocarbons.

Luigi Motta   and Michele Motta   

We have studied the internal climate of the Borna Maggiore di Pugnetto (Western Alps), starting from the survey of geological structure, of geomorphology and of vertical distance between cave floor and topographic surface. Then we studied the variations in temperature in the soil and in the air; the distribution of temperature and humidity in soil and air on four days that representing the four seasons. According the geomorphic data, the Borna is a through cave (hydro-geological tunnel). Three major heat sources regulate the thermal dynamics of the cave. In a branch enters water relatively warm, which is the main responsible for the distribution of temperature in this part of the cave. The entrance (at the opposite side of the cave) puts in communication the cave with the outer atmosphere, causing temperature changes, more and more attenuated inwards. Thermal imbalance between cave's ends probably causes the air circulation, which tends to homogenize the temperature of the air and soil, especially in the innermost part of the cave. The drip water is the third heat source: after the rains, causes sudden changes in temperature since October until June, after the starting of period of water surplus. The thermal dynamic of the cave makes almost constant temperatures, and divides the inner atmosphere in thermic zones, such as cold depressions, areas with constantly mild temperature, and traps to the warm air. This, combined with the constant temperature difference between air, walls and floor of the cave, creates many adjacent microhabitats. This factor, together at the proximity to glaciers in past, explains the great biodiversity of the cave.

Babangida Jibrin   and Yelwa N. A.    

Techniques for mapping the geometry of geological surfaces have been applied to faults mapped from 3D seismic data acquired offshore Niger Delta. The quality of the data was first improved by applying techniques that highlight faults based on the similarity of the seismic traces. Four faults were then tracked and surface models plotted using an algorithm that interpolates scattered data points at user-defined grid dimensions. The plots show that the faults exhibit a wide variety of geometries characterized by small-scale irregularities and more regular large-scale corrugations predominantly oriented along the dip direction. Although the surfaces were mapped in the time-domain, the consistent pattern of the long-wavelength corrugations suggests that the structures may not be entirely due to interpretation bias and velocity heterogeneity in Tertiary deltaic sediments. Results presented in this article highlight potential errors in subsurface structural models that assume simple and planar fault geometries.

Ejeh O. Innocent   Akpoborie I. Anthony   and Etobro, A. A. Israel   

Field observations at freshly exposed quarry sites, grain size analysis, mass spectrometry and statistical methods have been used to determine the depositional setting of sandstones from the Oligocene-Miocene Ogwashi-Asaba Formation. Some of the sandstones are ferruginized and indurated; others are friable, cross-bedded, non-ferruginized, white to yellow to reddish brown on weathering, and show top/bottom mantled pebbles. Textural examination indicates that the sandstones range from fine to coarse sands, with graphic mean grain size of -0.3 to 2.13ɸ. Standard deviation ranges from 0.62 to 1.52ɸ and implies moderately sorted to poorly sorted sediments. Textural indices suggest that most of the sediments were deposited under fluvio-deltaic to shallow marine environment by fluvial and beach processes adjacent to a near shore whirlpool agitating turbidity conditions. Major elemental oxides show SiO₂ content > 71% with extreme depletion of mobile oxides such as Na₂O, CaO and the ferromagnesian minerals through weathering and sedimentary processes.

Babangida Jibrin   

3D seismic data have been used to describe the seabed morphology offshore Niger Delta in the Gulf of Guinea. The seabed morphology is characterized by bathymetric ridges and grooves related to gravity-driven thrusting and folding in the Niger Delta compressional domain, numerous canyons, and fluid venting structures with morphologies similar to pockmarks. The pockmarks are found predominantly parallel to canyon margins, along the axis of bathymetric grooves and ridges and in places related to discontinuities on the seafloor. The densest concentration of pockmarks along canyon margins is probably due to active seepage of hydrocarbon fluids from shallow and or deep subsurface reservoirs. The large scale occurrence of pockmarks is a strong evidence of fluid migration processes and perhaps the existence of an active petroleum system in the area.

Reza Karami   and Peyman Afzal   

Estimation of elemental distribution based on geochemical data is important for determination of elemental prospects in studied areas. The main aim of this study is to estimate Cu, Mo, Au and Ag with respect to lithogeochemical data in Kahang porphyry deposit, Central Iran, using combination of Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The results obtained by the combination methods show that the proper elemental anomalies are associated with geological particulars including lithological units, alteration zones and faults. Moreover, correlation between raw data and the results reveals that the combination method can be applicable for interpretation of elemental distributions.

Rezvan Rassi   and Peyman Afzal   

The aim this study is to examine the correlation between Au lithogeochemical anomalies and density of faults utilizing geostatistical analysis, Concentration-Number (C-N) and Concentration-Area (C-A) fractal models in Hizehjan-SharafAbad area, NW Iran. This area is located in the Alborz-Azerbayjan structural zone and Arasbaran metallogenic belt having an Au epithermal type mineralization. In this study, Au variograms, anisotropic ellipse of Au distribution and rose diagram of fault trends were constructed whose analyses showed good correlation between major axis of ellipse with main trend of faults. Consequently, the C-N and C-A log-log plots were constructed for Au and fault-density distributions which revealed very good correspondence/correlation. The results obtained by fractal models indicate a strong correlation between main Au anomalies, anisotropic ellipse major axis and fault-density distributions.

Aaron K. Waswa   Christopher M. Nyamai   Eliud M. Mathu   and Daniel W. Ichang’i   

This research integrates geology with remote sensing techniques to establish characteristic features that can be used to discover iron ore mineralization within the Neoproterozoic rocks of Mutomo – Ikutha area in south eastern Kenya. The association of hornblende gneiss and shearing as well as alteration processes near the mineralized regions appear to play an important role in the distribution and localization of the iron mineralization The methods used in this research include Image processing techniques applied on the digital subset ETM+ data that cover Mutomo – Ikutha area and geological field mapping. These techniques generated several products of enhanced satellite imagery, such as colour composite images, ratio images and principal component images. These techniques have been successfully used in the lithological discrimination of iron ore bearing sheared hornblende gneisses. The capabilities of remote sensing data to characterize the iron ore bearing gneisses, in addition to characterization and mapping the hydrothermal alteration zones helped in identification of iron mineralization regions. Extensive field geologic and geochemical investigations to the pronounced zones delineated by the image processing technique, led to discovery of four locations of high iron anomalies with some iron mineralization, mainly connected to the studied Neoproterozoic hornblende gneisses. Chemical studies were carried out using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and X-Ray florescence, for some selected mineralized samples. Petrographic analysis and physical properties of the iron minerals were carried out as well. These investigations confirm the present iron mineral to be magnetite ore enriched with phosphates. The magnetite is found in close association with apatite chalcopyrite, quartz, and chlorite. Relics of corroded magnetite grains are occur along the Tiva river bed as well as along the road sides.

Amadi A.N.    Olasehinde P.I.   Jimoh M.O.   Okoye N.O.    and Aminu Tukur   

The movement of Federal University of Technology, Minna to its permanent site, Gidan Kwano Campus has led to the growth and development of Gidan-Kwano and Gidan-Mangoro as well as increase in demand of water for drinking and domestic purposes. Vertical electrical sounding employing the Schlumberger electrode configuration was employed in this study to characterize the subsurface lithology and provide useful information on groundwater potential of the area. The vertical electrical sounding curves obtained from the area revealed three geo-electric layer characteristics of a basement complex terrain and comprises of top-soil layer, weathered/fractured basement and the fresh basement. The study area has been found to have a high potential for groundwater development. Evidence of deep weathering and fracturing (joints and faults) were observed during the geological mapping of the area. The Interpreted principal joint direction coincides with the direction of stream flow suggesting a structurally controlled drainage system in the area. It implies that the NNE-SSW fracturing system in the area controls the basement weathering as well as groundwater flow system in the area. These zones of deep weathering and basement fractures are high groundwater potential area.

S.O. Obaje   F.C. Ugbe   I.A. Akpoborie   and A.O. Edebiri   

Investigation was carried out on sediments of River Gora to geochemically assess for gold and its origin. The study area is situated in Minna in the North-Central geo-political zone of Nigeria. The area is constrained within latitude 9^°33'N and 9^°35'N and longitude 6^°34'E and 6^°35'E. Major and trace elements were analyzed using X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry method. To decipher the factors responsible for the elemental association with gold, factor analysis, principal component analysis and cluster analysis were performed. The result revealed two main clusters of variables classified into three groups, namely: cluster 1, cluster 2(a) and cluster 2(b). Cluster 1 is made up of Ba and Sr, while cluster 2(a) consists of Rb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ba and cluster 2(b) contains As, Mn, Mo, Fe, Au, Sb, Ni, Pb. The principal component analysis solution revealed four components, namely: component 1 (Sb, Ba, As, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Fe), component 2 (Ba, As, Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Fe), component 3 (Sb, As, Zn, Sr, Ni, Cr, Fe) and component 4 (Au, Sb, Ba, As, Pb, Cu, Mo, Cr). The elemental associations suggested sulphide-gold mineralization within the surrounding schist and granitoids as possible source rocks.

Girma Moges   and Vijaya Bhole   

Major morphometric parameters of Goro watershed were derived from Aster Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) using ArcGIS10.1 extension, Arc Hydro Tool 2.0 in order to characterize it quantitatively. The study also assessed the relation of stream orders to selected channel hydraulic parameters (width, depth, channel bed slope, velocity and discharge) at bankfull flow condition. Channel geometry data and grain size samples collected from 14 representative cross-sections used as input to compute hydraulic parameters using equations appropriate for ungauged streams. The analysis of morphometric parameters indicate that pattern of stream networks is less controlled by structural condition though the area is situated in the rim of the great east African rift valley; and its geomorphic development is at late youth stage. Though hydraulic components of the channel do have a positive relation with stream orders, only channel cross-section area and discharge well related to stream orders [each increased at the rate of 0.86 and 1 on average with R² of 0.92 and 0.8 respectively with increasing in stream orders]. However, depth, velocity and bed slope of the channel are less explained by stream order, which may indicate us these hydraulic parameters are rather affected by other local channel factors.

Ehsan Daneshvar   

Estuaries are suitable places for both clay mineral accumulation and iron trapping. Flocculated and deposited Fe compounds in the estuaries can lead to neo-formed minerals which they have a basic role in reservoir quality estimation. The aqueous geochemistry of the Ravenglass estuary and its feeding rivers has been studied to assess if, where and when aqueous iron is lost from the river water and accumulates as part of the sediment in the estuary. Ravenglass estuary waters are conservative mixtures between river water and seawater in terms of chloride, sodium, potassium and magnesium. Alkalinity (bicarbonate), calcium and sulphate are locally non-conservative and are affected by biological and mineral processes. The River Irt contains twice as much dissolved iron as the River Esk but all iron concentrations are much lower in the estuary samples than in the feeding rivers. Aqueous iron undergoes large-scale accumulation in the Ravenglass estuary. Iron concentrations are lowest at high tide at all sampling sites on the Ravenglass estuary. Iron concentrations are highest at low tide for the Irt arm of the estuary but are highest on the falling tide between high and low tide. Iron concentrations in estuary samples decrease rapidly as salinity increases with low iron concentrations in all estuary samples once salinity exceeds 5,000 mg/lit. Iron concentrations also decrease as pH increases. The loss of iron is presumably due to flocculation of colloidal iron oxides, hydroxides and iron-organic complexes. Fluvial aqueous iron does not behave conservatively on mixing with seawater; most iron is lost from the water column at an early stage of river water mixing with estuary water. The site of primary iron-loss from the water occurs towards the heads of estuaries but this site will move as a function of time within the tide cycle. Given that the Esk has highest iron concentrations between high and low tide, it is likely that iron is swept from the iron-rich Irt arm of the estuary into the iron-poor Esk arm soon after high tide.

W.A.A.P Wijesundara   

A tsunami is a natural coastal hazard generated in the deep ocean as a result of an earthquake, volcanic activity, submarine landslide or meteoritic impact. The 26th Dec. 2004 earthquake off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia generated one of the deadliest tsunami in history. It demolished the coastal areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand, as these countries located shadow zone of this tectonic belt. Over thirty thousand loss their lives and also millions of worth extensive property damaged. As Sri Lanka situated in a shadow zone of the earthquake generated belt preparedness is very important factor. The study focused towards creation of a Tsunami risk map for Weligama area. The numerical simulation of tsunami inundation was carried out using ComMIT model with the major input parameters of earthquake source parameters, topography and bathymetry data. The December 2004 Sumatra Earthquake source parameters were used for generation, propagation, and coastal amplification of the tsunami waves and finally the inundation extent and water level was obtained to prepare large scale action maps on tsunami inundation to protect the coastal communities. The GIS tool has been used to incorporate the tsunami inundation depth to prepare the final tsunami risk map. Reliability of model results was compared with the field data and a high resolution QuickBird images with pre and post tsunami. The results from this study will be useful for long – term planning in vulnerable coastal communities and providing early warnings to take precautions to reduce impacts of tsunami in future.

Asad Ali Khan   Sana Arshad   and Muhammad Mohsin   

Land cover analysis and land use transformations, which are mainly associated with population growth, are considered as essential elements for studying the relationship between population growth, land use conversions and environmental consequences. Most cities of the world are becoming urbanized with every passing day and human induced land cover changes are modifying the pattern of land use in urban areas. Currently, Pakistan is standing at an influential place with regard to the size of its population, occupying sixth position among the world countries. Almost all its administrative entities have experienced unprecedented population growth throughout its entire life. Its urban areas are expanding more rapidly than their rural counterparts due to both by natural increase and by rural-urban migration. Study area for the current research, Bahawalpur is one of the fastest growing cities of Pakistan ranking twelfth among the cities of Punjab Province. This study aims at to examine the historical population growth of the city since last fifty years correlated with changing land use pattern and urban area expansion. Study is based on secondary data analysis using urban expansion indices for measuring the rate of urban change with increasing population growth. Application of regression model also verifies the increasing rate of urban area with population size and indicates an alarming situation for urban and city planners. Trend of urban growth in Bahawalpur shows that city is moving promptly towards highly urbanized cities of Pakistan. Its unprecedented and unplanned expansion may cause serious urban problems. Thus, it needs a serious look and attention of city planners. This study can also be helpful in providing some base line information.

Opeyemi A. Zubair   and Trina Weilert   

This paper presents the potential application of change in urban green space as an indicator of urban environmental quality change. At a pilot scale, Landsat images of 1990 and 2011 of Jackson county area of Kansas City were classified to produce land use land cover maps of the area. Further, NDVI was generated for these two periods. The goal is to extract greenness as a measure of environmental quality change. Preliminary results point towards a deterioration in environmental quality. However, we recommended that future studies include more parameters to provide a holistic view.

Olusola J. OJO   Suraju A. Adepoju   and Nurudeen Alhassan   

This study is focused on the clay deposits at Akerebiata area in Ilorin (north-central Nigeria), southwestern basement complex, Nigeria. The chemical and mineralogical compositions of the clays were investigated with the aim of determining their provenance, weathering history and most suitable use. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) method was employed for the mineralogical analysis while X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrophotometer (ICPMS) methods were used to for the determination of the bulk elemental composition. XRD analysis revealed kaolinite as the predominant clay mineral (54.2 to 90.9 wt. %) indicating intensive chemical weathering of aluminium-rich source rocks and exhaustive leaching under a warm, humid condition. Other non-clay minerals in the assemblages are quartz, rutile, anatase, microcline and plagioclase. Results of geochemical analysis show predominance of SiO₂ (47.14 to 64. 92 wt. %) and Al₂O₃ (19.47 to 29.39 wt. %) which support the kaolinitic nature of the clay and classify the clay as aluminosilicates. The relatively high mean values of the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) and Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) (87.15 and 90.09) also suggest an intensive chemical weathering in the source area. Other relevant geochemical indices; plot of TiO₂, ratios of Th/Co, Th/Cr, Cr/Th and relative proportion of Ni and Cr reveal felsic igneous parent rock. The clays are characterized by light colour, fineness, low-moderate LOI, mineral assemblage and chemical composition that make them favorably compared with standards for refactory, ceramics, pottery and paints.

Abdullahi Elmi Mohamed   

The paper compares the Limpopo and Orange Rivers in Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Juba and Shabelle Rivers in the Horn of Africa (HoA), which all are internationally shared basins. The aim is to identify differences and similarities between the river basins in the two regions in order to increase our knowledge and understanding of the issue of shared rivers. Relevant data were mainly collected and methods applied include document and literature review, text analysis, interviews with key professional persons during several study visits to the regions. Both the physical geography and the sectoral water uses of the rivers were presented and analyzed. Climatic similarities stand out when comparing the basins, as they are characterized by unevenly distributed rainfall patterns with great seasonal and annual variations, and the regions are water scarce. In both regions, the population is increasing, while the available water resource is decreasing. In all of the four basins, the regions are facing inevitable crisis of water scarcity. The river basins differ however primarily in terms of physical development of rivers’ water resources. The rivers in SADC have been developed for varieties of uses while the rivers in HoA are under-developed and under-utilized. The SADCrivers have established joint institutions for cross-border river cooperation while the HoA rivers have never had any type of river cooperation. Since the rivers have almost similar climatic and physical conditions, the legitimate research question in the future could be: what caused the differences in resource development and cooperation?

Erni Suharini   Dewi Liesnoor S.   and Edi Kurniawan   

The purpose of this study is to determine the public perception about a landslide in the Kaloran sub district Waterford District Central Java Indonesia. The population in this study is the people who have experienced landslides disaster. The variables of study include public perception of landslides, landslide disaster management by the community, and landslide disaster management by the government (BPBD, sub districts, villages). Data collection techniques use tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The analysis uses descriptive analysis and triangulation analysis to test the validity of the data. The results showed the public perception of the landslide (aspects of cognition) classified as less of ( 56.76 % ), Public perception of landslides (affective aspect) classified as good of (40.54 %). Public perception of landslides (aspect of conation) classified as good of ( 45.95 % ). Landslide disaster management efforts by the government in terms of utilization of early warning and prevention efforts require funding. Landslide disaster management efforts by local governments (BPBD) are less in terms of hazard warning signs, monitoring the implementation of regulations on spatial planning, building permits, relocation of residents who are in landslide-prone areas, satisfaction of basic needs and education of disaster. Suggestions should be directed to the community to participate in disaster landslide management efforts.

S. O. Obaje   E. A. Okosun   I. S. Amoka   and J. Z. Kwaha   

Investigations were carried out for geochemical characterization of Sokoto Phosphate rock and to propose a suitable ore dressing process for the recovery of phosphate for fertilizer and allied applications. The study area is Iullemmeden Basin (Sokoto sector) in the Northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The phosphate rock occurs mainly in nodules, while some are found as pellets, especially in the southern part of the study area. The phosphate deposit occurs predominantly in the Dange Formation and a small occurrence in the Gamba Formation. The phosphatic nodular beds measure between 0.3 m and 0.1 m, while the nodular disseminations may be up to 6 m in thickness. The P₂O₅ values range from 20.18-36.25 wt. %, while the Jordan, Morocco, USA, Algeria, China and Syria phosphates have the range of 30-35 wt. %. A mixture of di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (DEPA) and tri-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) is proposed for the recovery of uranium from phosphates.

V K Srivastava   Akash Adwani   Akshat Saxena   and Yogesh Arora   

Seismicity of Jharkhand state resembles to that of Stable Continental Region (SCR) and has experienced nearly 30 earthquakes of magnitudes ranging from 3 to 6 during the last 147 years. These earthquakes are shallow and crustal in nature which are scattered all over the region. However during the last 10 to 15 years there has been increase in the occurrence of seismic events. The study of plot of earthquake energy release versus time indicates that the earthquake of magnitude 6 may occur in and around the year 2060. The probabilistic analysis shows a high probability of occurrence of seismic events with M > 5 in 50 years of time interval and such interval increases with increase of earthquake magnitude. The return period for magnitudes 6 and above is quite high (80 to 100 years) where as for lower magnitudes the probability of occurrence ranges from 7 to 22 years. This periodicity of 100 years for magnitude 6 is approximately matching with the trend of magnitude energy release plot. However in view of the development and upcoming of high rise buildings in the region the smaller events and longer return period of damaging earthquake must not be ignored.

Mark K. Boitt   harles N. Mundia   and Petri Pellikka   

Climate variations all over the world have huge potential impacts to the environment at large. Human and economic activities are not left behind when climate change issues are concerned. Agriculture, being the core human and one of the basic economic activities is severely hampered by climate variations. In Africa, and specifically in Kenya, there has been rampant change in the growing patterns of some crops. Farmers lack knowledge that ascertains the reason behind the low income from their farm produce. The main research objective in this study is to determine the variation of agro-ecological zones (AEZ) of Taita hills in Kenya based on climate changes. Specific objectives are: Mapping historical climate data (1960-2010) and comparing with future climate datasets of 2050, matching the layers in a grid cell (Agro-ecological cell) using Geographical Information System (GIS) and delineating the AEZ based on selected parameters. This paper shows the development of AEZ for Taita hills in Kenya from a GIS point of view and develops a model of its variation given that climate is varying over a period of time. It gives a prediction for the variation of the zones based on climate change in the year 2050. A comparison of the historical and future AEZ is shown and is used to assess the impact of climate change on agricultural land. Finally it addresses the sensitive question of economical value to the farmers given that there will be a change and gives some remarks on possible farming practices that the farmers can adopt.

Andisheh Alimoradi   Ali Moradzadeh   and Mohammad Reza Bakhtiari   

Natural oil and gas reservoirs are the main assets of petroleum exploration and production industries. Proper characterization of properties of the reservoirs and reliable estimation of their future performance is therefore of immense importance. In the future, one of the most important problems in quantitative reservoir modeling is characterization of the carbonate reservoirs. These reservoirs, as one of the major hydrocarbon settings, include heterogeneous pore spaces with unknown and irregular distributions. In this study, a carbonate reservoir in southern Iran is selected as a test bed for application of a novel characterization method. Monitoring of velocity values from sonic logs has exhibited inversion in this reservoir. We attribute this inversion to the change in pore sizes for reasons that will be explained in the paper. To obtain real values of dry rock bulk modulus as an indicator of pore sizes, assuming an identifiable model, we devised a genetic algorithm to optimize the Gassmann equation. Our results show that an appropriately designed genetic algorithm can reliably predict the values of the dry rock bulk modulus accurately. Consequently, a proposal for modification of the Gassmann equation is presented by introducing a new coefficient representing the effects of pore sizes.

Anthony G. Tumba   and Anuar Ahmad   

This study focuses on the spatial data implementation in the developing countries, with specific interest in an African case. It advocates for the implementation of spatial data at the lower tiers of governments in the developing countries, the case of Africa. A subjective study of texts on regional spatial data implementation and web survey of geoportals of some twenty African countries form the basis for analysis and discussion. Studies on regional spatial data implementation showed that, most of them have standards and policy monitoring regional bodies while Africa has none. It was observed that out of the twenty countries surveyed, only five of them have functional geoportals through which spatial data can be easily and readily viewed and accessed, the rest are in one form of partnership/donor agreements. It was also observed that spatial data implementation at the national levels have not achieved much in terms of data production, exchange and sharing. This study believes that, as a result of these failures at the national levels, the advocacy for the implementation of spatial data at the lower tiers of governments would effectively enhance the production of spatial data applying the bottom-up approach as against the traditional top down-approach.

Surya Prakash Kapoor   and Bhag Chand Chauhan   

The origin of earthquake has long been recognized as resulting from strike-slip instability of plate tectonics along the fault lines. Several events of earthquake around the globe have happened which cannot be explained by this theory. In this work we investigated the earthquake data along with other observed facts like heat flow profiles etc…of the Indian subcontinent and found a high-quality correlation among the various indicators, like the earthquake events, seismic prone zones, heat flow regions and the geothermal sites. As a consequence, we proposed a hypothesis which can adequately explain all the earthquake events around the globe as well as the overall geo-dynamics. It is basically the geothermal power, which makes plate tectonics to stand still, strike and slip over. The plates are merely a working solid while the driving force is the geothermal energy. The non-utilized accumulated geothermal power shakes the earth along the plate boundaries and also triggers the intra-plate seismicity. In the light of the results reported by the California Energy Commission from the ongoing geothermal power project at the Big Geysers in California, we further propounded that by harnessing the surplus geothermal energy the intensity and risk of the impending earthquakes can be substantially reduced.

Amir Navidi   Mansour Ziaii   Peyman Afzal   Amir Bijan Yasrebi   Andy Wetherelt   and Patrick Foster   

Recognition of geochemical halos is one of the most important tools for exploration of undiscovered ore deposits. The aim of this study is prospecting for chromite deposits located in the Parang 1:100000 sheet, SE Iran, based on stream sediment data. To do this, geochemical zonality index and Concentration-Area (C-A) fractal modeling were used for chromite prospects determination. Multiplied values of Cr, Co and Ni as the zonality index for prospecting of chromite deposits and various geochemical anomalies were distinguished based on the C-A fractal model log-log plots which indicate four geochemical populations for Cr, Co, Ni and zonality index in the area with low intensive anomalies thresholds of 0.141 ppm, 17 ppm, 77 ppm and 7,943,282 ppm³ respectively. Results obtained by the C-A modeling show that the high intensive anomalies for multiplication of Cr.Co.Ni and Cr are located in the western and central of the studied area. Finally, the result obtained by zonality index and the C-A fractal modeling and Cr anomalies was compared by log-ratio matrix which illustrates that the western and central parts of the area are associated with chromite prospects having a good correlation with the geological model in the Parang 1:100,0000 sheet.

Ejepu, S. J.   and Olasehinde, P. I.   

Gidan Kwano campus of the Federal University of Technology, Minna, is located within the basement complex terrain of North-Central Nigeria and is underlain by Pre-Cambrian basement rocks of which granites are predominant. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) employing the Schlumberger electrode configuration was used to provide information about the subsurface lithology and structures with the aim of evaluating its groundwater potential. A total of 48 VES was made along eight profiles with six sounding stations per profile within an area of about 10km2. A combination of VES, Horizontal Resistivity Profile and Sounding – Profiling produced a subsurface geological appraisal of the study area. Results of the interpretations of VES data were used to produce fracture map and isopach map of depth to basement which has a mean value of 35 m. Interpreted fractures coincide with the direction of stream flow suggesting a structurally controlled drainage system. VES curves reveal that the area is generally characterized by three geoelectric layers. Top soil layer thickness range from 0.2m to 7.4 m while the weathered layer thickness range from 0.3 m to 58.8 m. Out of the 48 VES made, 8 VES stations have been selected as priority locations for the development of groundwater resources. The study area has been found to have a very high potential for groundwater development. Despite all the limitations of the VES technique, it has been found to be reliable for groundwater exploration in the basement complex terrain particularly when the Schlumberger Configuration combined with geological and computer - aided interpretation for the survey data is implemented.

Ako Thomas Agbor   

Basement rocks of Zungeru area consist of gneisses, schists, migmatites and intercalations of amphibolites and quartzites .This work involves detailed geological and geochemical investigation of Zungeru amphibolites so as to reveal their possible protolith. Field investigations show two petrographic types of the amphibolites on the basis of their textures, structures and mineralogy. They include the banded and massive types. The banded type is medium grained, strongly foliated and dark coloured rock while the massive type is fine to medium grained, dark-grey to black coloured with very weak foliations. Both types have been fractured due to deformation resulting in the development of joints and faults. Twelve representative samples of the amphibolites in the study area were collected and analyzed for major and trace elements using the Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDX-RF) Spectrometer, Model: Minipal 4 at the laboratory of the National Geological Agency, Kaduna. However, only the major elements data was used for determination of the protolith of the amphibolites. The analytical results show that the Zungeru amphibolites contain on average 50.15% SiO₂,12% Al₂O₃, 0.39% Na₂O, 0.02% K₂O, 9.41% CaO, 9.90% MgO, 0.02% MnO, 12.24% Fe₂O₃, 4.89% FeO, 0.5% TiO₂, 0.10% P₂O₅ and 0.78% H₂O. Various bivariate plots indicate that the precursors of the amphibolites are sedimentary. They are inferred to have been formed from metamorphism of decarbonated mixtures of pelitic sediments and calcite or dolomite. The occurrence of the amphibolites in association with quartzites further strengthened the fact that their origin is sedimentary and therefore referred to as para-amphibolites.

Krivtsov V.   and Mikkelsen O.A.   

This paper describes our studies of the suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the Liverpool Bay (UK). Monitoring data were analyzed by using entropy analysis. Entropy analysis of in situ particle size spectra revealed 5 basic types, attributable to different sets of environmental conditions. The revealed basic types of in situ particle size spectra were then subjected to the classification trees analysis in order to identify the meteorological and oceanographic variables of importance for the characterisation of the shape of SPM spectra. The results obtained are a step towards a better characterisation of the floc size, and therefore a more precise calculation of the sedimentation and transport rate, and are therefore relevant to the scientific analysis of a wider range of environmental issues.

Alkali,Y. Baba   E.A. Okosun   and Onoduku, U. Shehu   

A calcareous nannofossils biostratigraphic study has been carried out on the strata penetrated of well 02 located in the shallow offshore area of the Niger Delta, Nigeria. The study is aimed at establishing the age and nannofossils biozonations of the well. The samples were prepared using smear slide technique. Forty calcareous nannofossils species were identified and used to make biostratigraphic deductions of zonations and dating of the sequence. The distribution of the calcareous nannofossils enabled the establishment of three zones of Helicosphaera ampliaperta (NN4),Sphenolithus heteromorphus (NN5) and Catinaster coalitus (NN8) belonging to early Miocene - late Miocene following standard zonation schemes of previous workers. The zones were based on the first and last occurrences of marker species. Nannofossil abundance / diversity patterns calibrated with chronostratigraphical bioevents reveals four condensed sections when correlated to the Global Cycle Chart. This is associated with the 16.0 Ma, 14.8 Ma and 13.4 Ma and 10.89 Ma maximum flooding surfaces.

Onoduku U.S.   and Okosun E.A   

Palynological analysis provides data for determinations of ages, palynostratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the studied parts of Gombe Formation (around Maiganga coal mine) in the Upper Benue Trough. The studied sections of the formation were sampled from the drilled cores of the strata derived from the coal exploration drilling project carried out at Maiganga. A total of 174 core samples from three boreholes that penetrated the strata have been studied for their palynofloral contents and the results used to date, zone and interprete the paleoclimatic conditions of the paleoclimatic conditions of the studied strata. The aim was to establish their microfloral assemblages, age, paleoclimate and biozonation. The standard maceration method was employed for the palynological analyses employing both acid and hydrogen peroxide as the processing media. The studied boreholes (BA-7, BA-16 and BA-17) were considerably rich in palynomorphs especially the samples processed with H₂O₂. Majority of the pollen and spores observed from the study included Proteacidites sigalii, Retidiporites magdalensis, Monoporites annulatus, Cingulastisporites ornatus,Rugulatisporites caperatus, Scabratriporites annellus, Proteacidites longispinosis, Distaverrusporites simplex and Foveotrilete margaritae. The recovered marker species have been used to date the studied section Early-Late Maastrichtian. The analyses of the palynomorphs were used to interpret the paleoclimate of the studied sections as well as zoning the sections into two palyzones, Proteacidites sigalii-Echitriporites trianguliformis and Cyathidites spp-Laevigatosporites haardtii zones. The paleoclimatic conditions were inferred to belong to the Late Cretaceous Palmae province.

Anthony G Tumba   and Anuar Ahmad   

The perception of geographic information system and spatial data infrastructure in the developing societies is vague. Developing societies in the context of this paper are societies that are disadvantaged in the provision of geographic information system and spatial data infrastructure. The notion is that there is no clear cut understanding of geographic information system and spatial data infrastructure as perceived by societies who are still lagging in these technological ideas. Previous studies and web based sources on this subject matter form the basis for analysis, case study of three geospatial regions were viewed and analyzed. In this paper, different reasons for these information gaps were looked into, from the terms used in describing the two, to the models used for their implementation and the provision of facilities for implementation. The result obtained showed a lack of basic geographic information science background, failure in achieving a spatial data infrastructure standard and component system failure resulted in the perception. A model that is specific to developing societies in the opinion of this paper is what is needed. A suggested model to assist in refocusing the quest for national geographic information system and spatial data infrastructure towards people oriented spatial information services is made.

Lucie Nováková   and Milan Brož   

Paleostress analysis enables identification of stress history of a studied area. Reliable data are however necessary to get consistent results. Fault planes containing kinematic indicators have to be searched and recognized. If surface field survey is impossible, data are lacking, or deeper parts of a rock environment are being studied, boreholes can provide additional information. This paper is presenting review on paleostress analysis using core inspection data. Various aspects of the subject including kinematic data acquisition, core orientation, sampling bias, data processing, paleostress analysis and recent stress estimation are being outlined. The method is being demonstrated using case story based on borehole situated in Tisá Granite Massif, Czech Republic.

Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam   and Md. Aminul Islam   

The gas reservoir from the well Bakhrabad-09 of the Meghna Gas Field, Bangladesh was evaluated in this study in order to appraise the qualities of the reservoir based on quantitative analysis of petrophysical parameters. Among 24 permeable zones, two zones were gas-bearing and rests were water-bearing zones which identified in the study well. Relatively high resistivity, high SP log, low gamma ray log, very low neutron and low density log responses indicate hydrocarbon type might be gas-bearing zones than that of water-bearing zones. The shale volume of those zones ranged from average 21% to 22 % indicated that shaly sand dominating lithology and less affect the water saturation values in the gas reservoir. The average porosity of these zones ranged from 31% to 34 % which was within the limit for good hydrocarbon accumulation. Three saturation equations were used to evaluate the water saturation which was converted to gas saturation. The average gas saturation values of these zones were more than 60 % indicate high hydrocarbon accumulation. The average permeability of these zones ranged from 42.5 md to 50 md respectively which was within ranged for commercial gas accumulation. Average bulk volume of water ranged from 0.045 to 0.053 was shown that the reservoir consist of mainly fine to very fine grained sandstone and more or less at irreducible water state. It can be concluded that gas reservoir are good qualities for commercial hydrocarbon accumulation and production.

Goro A.I.   Salihu H.D.   Jibrin B.W.   Waziri N.M.   and Idris-Nda, A.   

A field mapping and laboratory study was undertaken to characterize the lower portion of Bida Formation around Jima and Doko areas near Bida, central Nigeria. Field mapping revealed four lithofacies for the sandy braided river deposits. They are: (1) lithofacies Fa consists of gravely, very coarse sandstones; (2) lithofacies Fb is characterized by gravely, medium to very coarse grained sandstones; (3) lithofacies Fc is identified by coarse silt to fine grained sandstones; (4) lithofacies Fd is recognized by sheet-like beds of fine to medium grained sandstones. They record channel flow (Fa), subaqueous dune (Fb), overbank (Fc) and crevasse splay deposits (Fd) respectively. The four lithofacies allowed the definition of two architectural elements: (1) channel architectural element (CH) and (2) overbank architectural element (OF). A CH element overlain by an OF element defines a unit bar; while stacked, multiple CH overlain by an OF delineate a compound bar. Computation of grain size data for Fa and Fb facies yielded permeability values of 19.4 to 352.3 millidarcies using empirically generated equation. Because permeability values do not vary much, it is suggested that Fa and Fb be treated as one homogeneous entity if object based reservoir modelling of the sandstones is to be done. This work shows that detailed field mapping integrated with grain size data can offer valuable information useful for aquifer and reservoir studies of the sandstones.

Yu.G. Gatinsky   and T.V. Prokhorova   

The north part of central Asia belongs to the north Eurasian lithosphere plate separated from neighboring plates by some transit zones. These zones consist of numerous crust blocks limited by active faults and interblock zones, in which maximal volumes of the seismic energy release. The examination of different geophysical fields of central Asia shows that interblock zones coincide with some anomalies in magnetic and partly gravity fields. Heat-flow values increase up to 80-100 μW/m-2 and more in interblock zones in boundaries of Hangay, Amurian, Tibet’s, and Tarim blocks as well as in some inner continental rifts. Some of heat-flow anomalies can be connected with mantle plumes under Hangay and north part of the Amurian Block. Within the central Asian transit zone the up-to-date tectonic compression distinctly predominates, while in the East Asian zone it changes partly on extension and slipping with extension. The crust thickness changes from 25-30 km in the east of central Asia up to 50-75 km in the west under Tibet and neighboring blocks. The lithosphere thickness changes in the same direction from 60-80 km up to 120-150 km, but it decreases up to 100 km and less under inner continental rifts coinciding with interblock zones. The direction of the P- and S-waves anisotropy shows within the great part of the region the coupling deformation in the lithosphere upper mantle and crust. But east of the east Himalayan syntax differently directed vectors of horizontal displacement are established in the crust and upper mantle indicating decoupling these layers under the influence of the Hindustan-Asia collision and “a threshold” of the SE China thick lithosphere, coinciding with the interblock zone between SE China and Tibet’s blocks. The majority of above-mentioned geophysical and geological data prove the heterogeneity of the central Asia lithosphere and its direct connection with interblock zones.

Vassilia Karathanassi   and Arlinda Saqellari-Likoka   

For each pixel, the values of the unwrapped phase produced by interferometric pairs can be parameterized and phase components, such as height, atmospheric path delay difference for the dates of every interferometric set image acquisition, and unwrapping error can be estimated through the solution of a rank deficient system of equations. There are several state of the art methods for solving rank deficient systems of equations, such as the Lower-Upper method, QR factorization and Singular Value Decomposition (SVD). In a previous work, the improved SVD method, which enables the accurate estimation of phase components, has been proposed. In this study, one alternative method for the estimation of the differential interferometry parameters, the improved QR, is proposed. The method relies on the reorganization of the system of equations by using external meteorological data which correspond to the acquisition dates that are less present in the interferometric SAR data set. All the aforementioned methods were tested and compared. The improved SVD and improved QR methods yield the most satisfactory results for all the phase components. The former estimates the heights by achieving almost GPS accuracy, whereas the latter is more robust, producing results of almost the same accuracy for all the estimated atmospheric path delays. However, the requirement of known values for at least two phase components makes the improved QR method less operational.

Vladimir Dyachenko   Irina Matasova   and Olga Ponomareva   

The article is addressed to the analysis of the results of the chemical elements monitoring in the soil landscapes of the Southern Russian Federation. The studies have been carrying out for over 30 years allowing repeatedly test the soils of different regions and generate the database with more than 9000 samples. The study findings show the increase of chemical elements concentration in the soils as a result of both – the global pollution and specific technology generated objects impact.

Nuhu Musa Waziri   

The geochemistry of surface soils and stream sediments from the Birnin-Gwari area in the north-western Nigeria Schist Belt was studied in order to assess the environmental impact of small-scale artisanal mining of quartz-gold-sulfide mineralization. Total elemental concentration was measured using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The results show elevated concentrations of silica, zirconium and paucity of base cations due to intense tropical weathering, accompanied by removal of fine labile fractions by wet season flooding and dry directional winds. This has implication for water chemistry in the area, especially with respect to pH due to low buffering capacity. The results further show that artisanal mining has not caused severe potentially toxic elements contamination. The consistently higher arsenic concentrations, relative to baseline values, were found not to vary between the mine-impacted and background areas. It is therefore interpreted to have been contributed by the use of agrochemicals in the area. The study has not found a significant human health risk associated with potentially toxic element uptake from mine wastes. It is however recommended that the distribution of arsenic in the soils, sediments and surface water in the area should be further studied in order to ascertain the sources and possible human health implications.

N.A. Shpolyanskaya   

The problem of age nonuniformity of the permafrost of the Russian Arctic shelf is considered in this paper. It is assumed that recent permafrost exists on the present-day shelf in addition to the cryolithozone, which was formed under subaerial conditions during shelf draining in the Late Pleistocene, was flooded during the subsequent transgression, and exists as a relic zone. It is considered whether permafrost can be formed immediately under submarine conditions. The mechanism of bottom soil freezing and ice formation, based on constant natural transformations in seabed sediments, is proposed. The proposed mechanism is confirmed by analyzing certain sections of the bottom sediments of shelf and of the Pleistocene marine plains (ancient shelves) composed of dislocated sequences with massive ice beds. On the basis of a ground massive ice genetic analysis different geological development as well as different transgressive and regressive regime of the Russian Arctic western and eastern sectors was revealed. The glacial cover limited distribution in the Russian North and its absence on the Russian Arctic and Subarctic plains to the East of the Kanin Peninsula were noted.

Rabindra K. Barik   and Arun B. Samaddar   

Today’s economic growth rate of any country hugely depends on development of the mining sector. Thus, the level of technology employed for meeting the extraction conditions must meet environmental norms. Exploration of mineral resources in India and mining is a ready application for technologies for ensuring productivity and efficiency. Mineral resources management uses Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) in the study reported. SDI is a portal where each stakeholder can access, use and exchange spatial and non-spatial data for social, economic and environmental activities. The proposed system at national level may have its nodes at state level and local level on Intranet and/or Internet on Global level. The present work reports the development of an efficient interoperable Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) based SDI Model for mineral resources management in India (Acronym: MRII (Mineral Resources Information Infrastructure)) to provide better geospatial web services for different applications in terms of their functionality, ease of operation and performance as applied in various mineral resources management systems. The MRII is modular. It allows the publishing of web service descriptions as well as to submit requests to discover the web services of user’s interests. The model supports integration of applications and uses thin-client architecture. Web Map Service (WMS), Web Features Service (WFS) and Web Catalogue Service (CS-W) of Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards have been used for sharing and exchange of geospatial data in MRII. The open source GIS software, used for development of MRII, include Quantum GIS for creation of mineral resources geospatial database, PostGIS for storing of spatial database, MYSQL for storing of security aspects of spatial and non-spatial data; ALOV, GeoServer, GeoNetwork, GeoWebCache and Apache Tomcat for imparting geospatial web capabilities and PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor), JSP (Java Server Pages) and GeoExt (Geo Extension) for dynamic server side scripting. The developed MRII presently provides detailed information about mineral resources in India as a test case and aims to deliver spatial information at affordable cost. The same may be used in future for other countries on expanding the volume of spatial data to include the Globe.

Ilya Chernov   

In the paper we describe the numerical model of large-scale hydro- and thermal dynamics of the White sea. The model is the model of the Polar ocean by prof. N.G. Iakovlev adapted for the shallow and small White sea. Based on the primitive equations and the finite elements, this model includes mature and effective ice sea model. We show that the numerical simulation agree well with the generally accepted three-dimensional large-scale circulation of the sea, including thermohaline fields, currents, ice drift and thickness distribution. Numerical experiments show that influence of atmospheric forcing perturbations on the dynamics of the sea is not drastic. Changes in air temperature to a few degrees lead to similar changes of the water temperature and only slightly change the distributions of the fields. Complete, no, and altering (no clouds at summer, total cover at winter) cloud cover also changes the main patterns only slightly. This also proves that the model is stable with respect to atmospheric forcing.

Praveen Kumar Rai   M.S.Nathawat   and Kshitij Mohan   

Glacier monitoring is important to provide estimates of freshwater storage in Himalayan region. Therefore, understanding the spatio-temporal glacier retreat is important for utilization of the Himalayan water resource. The study area covers Dodavalley, Zanskar basin in Jammu & Kashmir. An attempt is also made here to analyze the glacier retreat and morphometric parameters like, length, width, area, area accumulation ratio (AAR), specific mass balance etc., of the glaciers using multi-temporal satellite data of IRS-1C LISS III of August 2001, Landsat of 1975, 1992 and 2002and in conjunction with Survey of India (SOI) topographical map of 1962 and United State of Geological Survey (USGS) map of 1925. In this study, it was found that, total glacier area loss from 1962 to 2001 is 18.16%. Though in the years 1975 and 1992, there is positive specific mass balance but in the year 2001, specific mass balance of all glaciers was negative.

A. Romanko   N.A. Imaverdiyev   V. Prokofiev   I. Vikentiev   A. Savichev   and S. Stepanov   

A satisfactory tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic correlation in the East Iran, Middle East for Alpine time was revealed in the region (mainly metallogeny – led by outstanding regional trio: Drs. E. Romanko, A. Houshmand-Zadeh, and M.A.A. Nogol Sadat). Geological northeastern zonation and “hot” tectonics due to the African superplume activity including probably slab delamination is revealed too. Strongly dominated rocks of calc-alkaline and shoshonite series deal with a known subduction of Arabian plate beneath the Central Iran block. Intraplate African superplume-related rocks are subalkaline – alkaline ones including Quaternary carbonatites in Hanneshin, Afghanistan. Tectonic-magmatic pair could be postulated here. General oil / hydrocarbons (HC) productivity decreasing to the north could be in an agreement with corresponding decreasing of African superplume activity too. Regional economic Cu-Au etc. metallogeny is mainly stipulated by a subduction mentioned.

Abderrahmane Ibhi   and Hassane Nachit   

A small eroded impact crater was recognized at about 20 km to the south of Isli impact carter (Central High Atlas, Morocco) at (31^°59'12.7"N; 5^°30'57.3"W). The crater had been recognized through the presence of shatter cones. Very beautiful shatter cones have been found in samples of Jurassic limestone. The mapping of 40 individual shatter cones revealed an area of at least 1 km² covered by these features. The shatter cones are not in place because they are harvested in Jurassic limestone wrapped in quaternary deposits, predominantly at the flanks of the dry rivers, They Are not observed in the bedrock. While many shatter cones displayed curved and spoon-like surfaces, many are also conical with apices pointing in opposite directions. Complete Cones are present only in 10-15% of the samples studied. The discovery indicates the presence of unknown, deeply eroded impact structure or only they are ejected of nearby impact crater.

Tomáš Schütz Silvia Dolinská and Annamária Mockovčiaková 

The work focuses at the option to improve the sorption properties of bentonite via its modification and presents the possibility to remove heavy metal cations from the water solutions by the usage of non-homogenous bentonite coated by manganese oxides. At first, natural bentonite was converted to its sodium form using Na₂CO₃ as the activating agent. Afterwards, manganese oxides precipitated on the surface of natural and sodium activated bentonite, respectively. The structure of the bentonite before and after its modification was subsequently studied by X-ray diffraction analysis. The thermal stability of the natural and modified bentonite was evaluated based on TG and DTA measurements. The morphology of the samples was observed by scanning electron microscope. The zeta potential measurements showed the electrokinetic properties of the bentonites after the precipitation of manganese oxides on their surface. Batch sorptions of Cd²⁺ from aqueous solutions were conducted to compare the sorption properties of the natural and modified bentonite.

Fatemeh Soltani Peyman Afzal and Omid Asghari 

Main aim of this study is stationary (first and second order) reproduction assessment of sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS) compared to ordinary kriging (OK) in the hypogene zone of the Sungun Cu porphyry deposit (NW Iran) based on drillcore data utilizing both SGS and OK. In comparison with OK, geostatistical stochastic simulations are able to assess spatial and uncertain distribution of desired variables. In simulation by SGS method, data were transferred to standard normal and then simulated 10 times (10 realizations were created in this scenario. All of the realizations were honor to histogram and variogram of samples, so all realizations are valid but derived cumulative distribution functions from E-type map and kriging could not reproduce the stationary well.

Seyed Hosein Alhoseini Peyman Afzal Behzad Tokhmechi and Dariush Kaveh Ahangaran 

This study aims to identify proper parts of B₂ coking coal seam in the North block of East-Parvadeh coal deposit (Central Iran) using the C-N fractal models based on sulfur and ash values. Based on the C-N log-log plots, there are five different geochemical populations for both sulfur and ash data. First population for sulfur has ranged from 0-1.58%namely “very low sulfur population” which has best quality for coking coal and this has situated in the northern and western parts of the area. However, first and second populations for ash with ash values between 0 and 30% namely “very low ash population” and “low ash population” have suitable quality for coking coal in B₂ seam which have situated mostly in the western part of the North Block. Moreover, proper parts of the B₂ coking coal seam are situated in the northern and western parts of the North Block.

Yevgeniy Belov Stanislav Khomenko Grygoriy Klopov Anna Linkova Hennadii Rudnev and Oleg Voitovych 

The development of combined double frequency method of radar rain sensing and preliminary results of the experimental study of the method are presented. As it was shown the experimental study is in good agreement with calculations and confirms the main conclusions of the theoretical considerations.

Yu. B. Bashkuev V. R. Advokatov and L. Kh. Angarkhaeva 

Predictive maps of geoelectric sections (GES) of North and South America are constructed. The GES maps are capable of increasing the accuracy of electromagnetic field calculations in the VLF-LF-MF ranges of radio waves by 1.5-3 times as compared to the Morgan-Maxwell map. The studies of electrical properties of layered media by combined radio and geophysical methods in a variety of natural and geological conditions, and the proposed method of GES mapping have resulted in the construction of a new generation of maps showing the electrical properties of the underlying medium that account for the layered structure of the crust and have no analogues in the world. Predictive geoelectric mapping of all the continents of the globe is completed.

Elvis V Onovughe 

Minute values of all three geomagnetic field components X, Y, Z (north-south, east-west and vertically downward components respectively) were taken from four observatories in Africa (Bangui, Mbour and Tamarraset) and South Atlantic (Ascension Island) during the total solar eclipse and analysed. Results were compared with the Comprehensive Model (CM4) to see whether the model was able to reasonably predict the observatory data during the eclipse – or does the modification of the geomagnetic field at ground level as a result of the ionosphere being shielded from the Sun’s heating and ionization radiation during the eclipse provides constraints for the model? Results show pronounced eclipse feature at Tamarraset, with a decrease of about 20nT in X component and an increase of 5nT in Y component. The model was also able to reasonably predict the observatory data at Tamarraset – doing very well in Y and Z components compared to X. No significant effect was noticed in Bangui, Mbour and Ascension Island. The model did a fairly good job predicting the data at Bangui and Mbour but not so well at Ascension Island

Dehban Avan Stakhri Maryam 

The purpose of this study is to produce the Landslide susceptibility zonation map for Poulrood earth fill dam reservoir with using fuzzy muti criteria decision analysis and fuzzy logic methods. To obtain the Fuzzy relations for producing the susceptibility map, a landslide inventory database is obtained by both field surveys and desk studies. To produce susceptibility map with User define and Gaussian functions then landslide related parameters such as lithology, distance from faults, distance from drainage, slope angle, slope aspect, slope curvature, distance from road, NDVI, earth quick horizontal acceleration and Precipitation were used in the landslide susceptibility analysis. The results obtained in this study showed that the frequency ratio can be used as a simple tool in assessment of landslide susceptibility when a sufficient number of data were obtained. The prediction performance of the susceptibility map is checked by considering quality sum amount (Q_s). According to landslide susceptibility index for different parameters, it was found that the aspect, lithology and drainage system are the most effective parameters in the study area. With investigation get values of quality sum index(Q_s), landslide density for two types of function in two methods(fuzzy logic and Fuzzy multi criteria decision analysis) and attention to good work of operator Gamma in landslide susceptibility mapping, produced map with Gaussian function and Gamma 0.7 operator (fuzzy logic method) has topmost quality.

Haini-Kamal Kassymkanova Gulnar Jangulova Jeniskul Bastaubaeva and Gulbanu Baidauletova 

Control and regulation of the formation behavior while using the uncontrolled caving method require thorough investigation of the formation properties and structure, its geological, geostructural and geotechnical parameters as well as geomechanical peculiarities of rock pressure generation and its effect in the course of ore deposits mining.The most indicative are the mining plants of Donskoy Mining and Concentration Complex, which operate the uncontrolled caving method for mining of thick ore deposits at the chromite ore fields.The fields ofSouth-Kempirsay chromite-bearing block are the second largest fields comparing to Republic of South Africa and Zimbabwe. Prospectivity and extent of the operations at the fields could be described by the rate of production and its development: “Molodyozhnaya” mine of 2.0 million tons annual output is the world largest underground mining of chromite ore.Currently mining of ore deposits at Donskoy chromites fields is carried out at rather significant depths (of 500 and more meters), the second working of subjacent strata is carried out as well.Along with the extension of second working areas under the specified conditions, carrying out of the large-scale development operations and pre-production development as well as generation of closed extraction mines, there is the necessity to ensure more rational regulation of the rock pressure, provision for safe structural components of the mining system, selection of the methods and means for mine workings fixing and, finally, provision of efficient and reliable system of ore deposits mining. In applying this system it is critical to determine the caving zone sizes, which could be calculated quite easily depending on the ore body parameters, direction and sequence of its reserves development, whereas its height would depend on the extent of the increase of the caving rock block volume due to its loosening. This article outlines the results of laboratory tests on determination of the volume of loose rocks, which is calculated on the basis of the loosening factor (k_p) that represents the “...ratio of the rock volume in loose (bulk) state to its volume as the solid block…”.

Yu.B. Bashkuev D.G. Buyanova M.G. Dembelov V.B. Khaptanov I.B. Naguslaeva and V.R. Advokatov 

In the paper the approach based on considerable non-uniformity of electric properties of lithosphere both by depth and by area is developed. Geoelectric sections (GES) of various types of continental lithosphere (rift hollows, crystalline massif, permafrost) to large depths are examined. The substantiation of models of the lithosphere electric conductivity in seismically active and stable areas is considered. The main attention is given to areas of crystalline massif and zones of geoelectric non-uniformities (tectonic faults) attributed to seismic generating structures. The GES of seismoactive area (to the depth of about 60 km, up to 13-15 layers of GES) are studied on an example of the Baikal Rift Zone (BRZ).

Patrik Peeters Leen De Vos Bart Vandevoorde and Jentsje van der Meer 

In situ wave overtopping tests were performed on typical dike structures along the Schelde in Flanders (Belgium) with the Dutch Wave Overtopping Simulator. For a storm duration of 2 hours, wave overtopping characteristics were derived for significant wave heights ranging from 0,75 to 1 m and peak periods between 3 and 4 s. Prior to the in situ experiments, soil investigations were executed together with a detailed study of the quality of the grass cover. During the tests, video recordings were made and detailed pictures of the damage were taken. Water content and evolution of the grass cover were monitored. At one location, no failure was experienced up to 50 l/s per m, even after applying initial damage to the surface protection. Other locations failed after facing 30 l/s per m. Besides the cumulative overload method, available failure models are derived for steady overtopping conditions. Assuming erosion equivalence with unsteady overtopping conditions, different erosion resistance as well as (superficial) slip models are applied. Outcomes of the models are compared to the results of the in situ wave overtopping tests in Flanders (Belgium). Different approaches for describing the load term are discussed. Whether for unsteady overtopping conditions, erosion is predominant determined by the front velocity or an approximation of the average velocity of consecutive waves still needs further investigation. However, this discussion is maybe rather philosophical, because one’s choice has a direct influence on the threshold values under which waves are not accounted for. For all methods, the determination of threshold values given different qualities of covering is at-the-time still questionable.

A. A. Adepelumi O. B. Akinmade and Fayemi. O 

A combined electrical resistivity and Magnetic surveys was carried out to locate fissured zones and associated groundwater-bearing media at Baikin Area in Ondo State, Nigeria that is known to have acute groundwater supply shortage. One Hundred (100) Vertical Electrical Soundings were acquired along ten traverses using the Schlumberger array with maximum half current electrode spacing (AB/2) of 200 m. Magnetic data were acquired along the traverses at station interval of 10 m using the Proton Precession Magnetometer. Four geologic layers were delineated. These include the topsoil, weathered layer, fractured basement and fresh basement bedrock. The thickness of the topsoil ranged from 0.2 to 1.1 m while the resistivity values varied from 29 to 455 Ωm. The weathered layer thickness varied between 0.2 and 12.6 m while its resistivity ranged between 13 and 307 Ωm. The fractured basement delineated had resistivity value of 61 Ωm. The fresh basement resistivity ranged between 941 and α Ωm. The overburden thickness ranged between 1.1 and 12.9 m. The weathered and fractured aquifers constituted the main aquifer units. Aquifer thickness varied between 0.2 and 12.6 m. Quasi 3D magnetic models also showed that depth to bedrock in the study area was shallow. The study concluded that the groundwater potential of Baikin Area was generally low.

Victor Privalsky and Sergey Muzylev 

An explicit bi-variate stochastic model of the El Niño – Southern Oscillation system (ENSO) is built for the first time directly from observations of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and sea surface temperature (SST) in the Niño region 3.4 (1876-2011). According to the resulting stochastic difference equation, the system remembers its past for two years, has the eigenfrequency 0.24 year^-1 and the damping factors 0.5 and 0.05. Statistics of SST variations, including properties of El Niño and La Niña, are also estimated through a Monte Carlo experiment. The time-domain model is used to describe ENSO in the frequency domain, including maximum entropy estimates of spectra, coherent spectra, coherence function, and frequency response function. The spectra are peaked at 0.22 year^-1; the coherence increases from 0.6 at the lowest frequencies to over 0.9 between 0.18 year^-1and 0.33 year^-1 exceeding 0.8 at all frequencies above 0.12 year^-1. This means that SST and SOI determine each other by up to 85% everywhere but at the lowest frequencies. The gain factor is peaked at 0.24 year^-1 while the phase factor’s magnitude is close to π everywhere. Therefore, the statistical predictability of the bi-variate ENSO time series does not improve much over the scalar case predictability.

Yu. B. Bashkuev V. P. Melchinov M. G. Dembelov L. Kh. Angarkhaeva and D. G. Buyanova 

Results of the measurements of the cryolithic zone electrical properties by the radio impedance sounding method are presented. The surface impedance and geoelectric section of the Arctic permafrost have been determined. The experiments have been performed near Cherskii in the continental zone. The map of geoelectric sections of the cryolithic zone, which takes into account the layered structure of rocks, is constructed.

Adepelumi A. A. Fayemi O. and Akindulureni J. 

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been found to be most suitable for subsurface stratigraphic and lithologic mapping. In this study, we showed its application in bathymetric study in the region where a proposed pedestrian bridge across a river channels is planned. The application of a novel digital signal processing approach applied to the GPR acquired is shown. The methodology adopted involved the acquisition of GPR data along a 100 m transect, across the river using a 200 MHz GSSI SIR equipment. The GPR data was processed using the sequence viz: 1) Dewowing 2) Filter in frequency domain 3) Custom Gain 4) Automatic gain control 5) Delete Mean trace and 6) Deconvolution. In addition, complex processing methods (Instantaneous attribute) was applied to increase interpretability of the GPR data. The performance of each processing step is compared by examining its result. The study shows that filtering in frequency domain; gain application and delete mean trace are the basic processing steps used in low noisy data acquired with GSSI equipment. From the processing, it was evident that deconvolution is very effective in removing reverberation and/or multiples from the dataset. Delete mean trace produced the best result in removing high amplitude, continuous horizontal reflections (such as direct wave) that conceals true reflections. Even though these methods were effective, each method has its own advantages and limitations. Therefore, preservation of the geological features should supersede any other motive or decision made during GPR data processing. Among the complex processing methods, Instantaneous phase proved to be most resourceful for bathymetric study. The Interpreted section revealed the base of the river at a depth of 5 m. A good knowledge of the river geometry which will help civil engineers in proper planning of the bridge footings structure was also obtained.

Viktor Kaufmann Markus Dorn Gian-Philipp Patri Stefan Reimond and Wolfgang Sulzer 

This paper describes two different mapping projects in the upper Langtang Valley, Central Himalaya, Nepal, applying close-range photogrammetry using a non-metric consumer-grade digital camera Nikon D300. Data acquisition (terrestrial photographs, and additional handheld GPS and laser distance measurements) was carried out during a field campaign in April 2010. The first mapping project aimed to document the present extent of the glacier tongue of Kyimoshung Glacier, Langtang Himal, and to compare this glacial stage with an earlier one (1992). The second mapping project intended to produce a large-scale map of Kyanjin Gompa for socio-economic studies. Kyanjin Gompa is a small settlement with a fast growing tourism infrastructure. Photogrammetric work was supported by commercial software, such as ImageStation of Intergraph and/or PhotoModeler. The results obtained are presented graphically using maps and numerically.