Chisom Finian Iroka   Kenneth U. Ekwealor   Consolata A. Onyili   Patrick U. Nwaogaranya   Adaugo O. Nwakuche   Onyinye A. Mbaukwu   Chukwu N. Okereke   and Clara N. Ikegbunam   

In Anambra State, the accelerated loss of plant diversity due to habitat destruction and changing land use patterns has endangered the survival of tree and shrub species. This research investigated the taxonomic diversity of tree and shrub species in three tropical forests in Anambra State using line transects and plot sampling. The study reported taxonomic diversity as alpha diversity (species richness, abundance, Shannon diversity index, and Simpson diversity index) and beta diversity (Sørensen similarity coefficient). Python programming language was used for data analysis, utilizing libraries such as Pandas, NumPy, and Scikit-Learn for data manipulation. In the species abundance study, Elaeis guineensis had the highest Importance Value Index (IVI) at Nnamdi Azikiwe Conservation Forest (NACF) with a value of 7.128, followed by Carapa procera (6.585) and Newbouldia laevis (6.177). At the Ishigwu Forest Umuomaku (IFU) site, Elaeis guineensis, Cananga odorata, and Nauclea latifolia were the most common IVI-based species. The most abundant species in Umuikwu Forest Anam (UFA) were Elaeis guineensis, Newbouldia laevis, and Dacryodes edulis. The Simpson diversity index indicated that NACF and IFU had lower dominance of a few species compared to UFA, which had a more even distribution of species. The Sørensen similarity coefficient revealed a significant overlap in species composition between Ishigwu Forest Umuomaku (IFU) and Umuikwu Forest Area (UFA). These findings provide valuable insights for informed decisions regarding conservation and sustainable management based on species relationships, environment, and ecosystem services.

Endah Dwi Hastuti   Dinsa Brillian Yolandita   Erma Prihastanti   Lailia Nofiana   and Muhammad Luqman Hakim   

This study compares the root, leaf, and stomata anatomy of Rhizophora stylosa Griff. under various salinity levels and identifies anatomical parameters as indicators of salinity change. The experiment lasted for three months using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with five salinity treatments (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 ppt), and three replications. The parameters observed included root structure (hypodermis and cortex thickness, density, and aerenchyma area), leaf anatomy (total thickness, hypodermis and palisade layers), and stomata characteristics (size, pore width, and density). Data were analyzed using ANOVA followed by DMRT. The results of the study show clear anatomical differences between low and high salinity levels. The most prominent adaptations occur at medium salinity levels (25–30 ppt), which are characterized by a thicker hypodermis layer, wider aerenchyma spaces, and larger stomata pores. These structural modifications indicate physiological strategies for maintaining water balance and reducing osmotic stress. These findings suggest that specific root, leaf, and stomata characteristics may serve as early biological indicators of salinity changes in coastal ecosystems. By providing anatomical references for assessing mangrove tolerance, this study contributes to an evidence-based approach for monitoring resilience and guiding conservation actions in the face of climate change-induced salinity increases.

Ebenezer Adewuyi Ademola   Michelle Uchechukwu Ugbana   Andrew Obinna Ikeotuonye   and Temiloluwa Muiz Tewogbade   

Groundwater has been identified as a major source of drinking water in Nigeria. However, increase in human activities is known to contaminate and deteriorate the quality of this source of water. This study evaluated the bacteriological and physicochemical qualities of household water supply sources from two towns in the Ikorodu suburb of Lagos State, Nigeria. A total of sixty (60) groundwater samples were collected from Imota and Isiwu communities. Total Heterotrophic Bacteria Count (THBC), Total Coliform Count (TCC), and faecal coliform detection in the water samples were carried out using standard microbiological methods. pH, conductivity, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), and salinity of the water samples were determined using an Ionix PC 50 multi-meter. THBC of the samples from Imota town ranged from 0 - >300 cfu/mL, TCC ranged from 0 - >1100 MPN/100mL, and fecal coliforms were detected in 93.3% (28/30) of the samples, while THBC of samples from Isiwu town ranged from 5 - >300 cfu/mL, TCC ranged from 3 - >1100 MPN/100mL, and fecal coliforms were detected in 76.7% (24/30). The TCC showed that 96.7% (29/30) and 100% (30/30) of the water samples from Imota and Isiwu, respectively, contain coliforms, and the TCC of the water samples was far above the WHO standard for drinking water. The pH of the water samples was below the WHO standards of 6.5 - 8.5. This study showed the high contamination and poor bacteriological quality of the groundwater sources in the two communities. Therefore, there is a need for orientation and interventions in the community to safeguard public health.

Rupesh Subedi   Dhan Bdr Gurung   Karma Wangchuk   Namkha Gyeltshen   Laxmi Sagar   Rinchen Dorji   Karma Lodhen Wangmo   Tshering Zangmo   and Priyanka Rai   

Domestic wastewater is a crucial source of contamination in freshwater ecosystems, with an estimated global production of 127.13 billion tons annually. Various sewage treatment facilities put in place for treatment of municipal wastewater generate sewage sludge, which accumulates contaminants from wastewater, posing risks to waterbodies upon discharge. Although biological, and chemical treatment methods are employed for treatment, they have limitations, and environmental concerns. Despite the recommendation for sludge reuse in agriculture, it may contain harmful heavy metals like Zn, Cd, and Pb, threatening ecosystems, and human health. The discharge of wastewater in the river poses substantial risk due to the heavy metal concentration as well as physicochemical contaminants. Index approach for assessing ecological risks, and extent of contamination of sludge, and water from heavy metals is recommended. A decommissioned sewage treatment plant in Thimphu, Bhutan poses risks due to wastewater leakage into rivers, necessitating the need for a study to evaluate heavy metal concentrations, and physicochemical contaminants, and determine the ecological risks of sludge, and wastewater to the river water. The study was conducted at Babesa Sewage Treatment Plant in Thimphu city, sampling sludge, and wastewater from the plant based on different biological treatment methods, and river water upstream, and downstream. The physicochemical parameter and heavy metals concentration were analyzed, and water quality indices were used to assess pollution, and ecological risk. Statistical analysis of the data for heavy metals and physicochemical parameters was conducted using ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation. Results indicated that the physicochemical parameters were within permissible limits for sludge, and wastewater, thereby affirming agricultural application. Heavy metal concentrations for sludge also differed among ponds, and correlation analysis revealed positive associations. Zn, and Cd had moderate contamination but Cd, and Cu posed more ecological risk in sludge. The wastewater had higher contamination of Pb, and the river water upstream as well as downstream showed the same. River water downstream showed elevated levels of heavy metals compared to upstream establishing significant deterioration in quality. Positive correlations among heavy metals suggest a common pollution source, likely effluents from the sewage treatment plant.

Christopher Uche Okolie   Ann Onyinye Mbaukwu   Chidozie Azubuike Anukwuorji   and Chukwu Nkumah Okereke   

With rapid industrialization, excessive use of agrochemicals, and improper waste disposal systems, the contamination of soil and water by toxic heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic etc., is increasing spontaneously and has become a global menace in recent times. It is attracting global attention due to their deleterious impact on humans and ecosystems. Little achievements have been made with regards to effectively containing or reversing the dangerous levels of heavy metal pollution of the environment. Therefore, there is an urgent need for effective and sustainable remediation methods. Several remediation strategies have been proposed to tackle the problem of continuous heavy metal contamination of soil. However, most of the strategies have some limitations of ecological concerns ranging from the high cost of operations, generation of sludge and wastes, inefficiency, and unsustainability. This review discusses the various advantages and mechanisms involved in the in-situ immobilization of heavy metals in contaminated soils by exploiting the interactions between phosphate-solubilizing fungi and phosphate minerals and fertilizers. Phosphate-solubilizing fungi (PSF) are beneficial microbes capable of solubilizing inorganic phosphorus compounds or phosphate-containing organic compounds to release phosphorus (P). The activities of PSFs in the soil ensure the availability of much-needed P to plants and microorganisms in the soil.

Paulo H. Mattos   Jean A. Espinoza   Raphael M. Pinotti   João L. Nicolodi   Lauro J. Calliari   and Kahuam S. Gianuca   

One of the great challenges faced due to current human demands is to reconcile the conservation of the innumerable natural resources present in the marine realm with the intense development processes occurring in the coastal zones. The latter aspect includes Marine Spatial Planning (MSP), an important management tool created to establish a more rational organization of the use of marine and coastal areas, equalizing the demands of development with the need to protect these ecosystems. Some of the most important international organizations — the European Union, OSPAR, HELCOM/VASAB, and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) — are encouraging MSP at a national level. Another efficient tool is Ecosystem-based Management (EBM), which allows a full arrangement of interactions within the marine realm and effectively integrates science and governance for the management of natural resources. This work aims to propose an integrated analysis methodology using an EBM approach that encompasses environmental variables and current and potential uses, contributing to the implementation of marine spatial planning for the inner continental shelf surrounding the Patos lagoon estuary. Datasets were used to produce the thematic maps, such as surface sedimentology, location of the ecologically important submerged features, occurrence of mineral resources and zoobenthic fauna, with trophic importance and/or endangered. A sedimentological map was initially drawn; it was possible to observe the predominance of fine sand sediments between the coastal zone and the 50 meter isobaths, together with some coarse and medium quartzose sand and shell gravel deposits. The identification of these sedimentological patterns is fundamental in the understanding of the benthic communities, in addition to creating subsidies for the conservation of species. The present study proposes the creation of zones for exclusive use and multiple-use based on the surveys and mapping of the environmental and socioeconomic features of the region.

Okan Özbakır   Mustafa Öcal   and Mehmet Hakkı Alma   

The rapid development of technology coupled with the increases in population led to requirement of raw materials. For that reason, the largest quantity of production is needed but the large production causes significant social, economic and ecological consequences regarding a sustainable mining activity. Preserving the relevant balances reveals the necessity of developing sustainable projects after mining. Thus, development or sustainable development should be defined not only as increasing the welfare level, but also as protecting human rights, political rights and ecological balance, and leaving a liveable world to future generations. Herewith present study, Tuzluca rock salt mine was been assessed. Due to being located on the Silk Road, Tuzluca (Igdir, Turkey) rock salt mine with its rich reserves and tenors has been of great economic importance since ancient times. Within the areas of this salt mine, the production is still being carried out but the relevant and safe areas are under project for salt therapy purposes. Due to the unique properties of the salt mine and underground air, and its therapeutic ability potential, these areas have been assessed for health tourism, viz. Speleotherapy and Halotherapy center. These treatments are known to be very beneficial for respiratory tract, ear, nose, throat and skin diseases within the framework of complementary medicine applications. However, we should herein note that mining activities carried out might bring significant consequences regarding the social and ecological structures of the region. With the ongoing increase in mining activities, it has enabled the necessary investments, employment, education, trade and infrastructure for the residential area to develop over time. Along with the present project, we have aimed at developing and providing a sustainable prosperity and a safe future after salt mining activities, also aiming at making significant contributions to the region.

Jibsam F. Andres   and Michael E. Loretero   

Discharge flow rates were used to assess and determines the hydropower capacity of water source. It is known that the procedure for discharge measurement using common methods requires multiple parameters. These parameters were measured respectively to determine the water power. In reality, water flow may not the same in the succeeding times. Therefore, parameters should be measured simultaneously will give a more relevant water profile assessment. Likewise, these common methods are not feasible during heavy water flow. With these, the study develops two things; 1.) the adjustment factors of different common methods in measuring water discharge, and 2.) the simplified method of weir method. The simplified approach of weir method measures the water discharged by measuring the overflow head of water above the weir crest. A simultaneous data observation was performed in the experiment to develop the simplified approach of weir method and derived adjustment factors of each method. The result shows that 3-point method of current flow-meter and float method gives almost the same as true discharge value. The true discharge value of the simplified method of weir method is multiplied by the adjusted factor equal to 0.81.

Nwadike Chidiogo Comfort   Ude Chidelum Jennifer   and P. C. O Ilozumba   

A study of snail species in Mgbowo Community Awgu L.G.A., Enugu State, Nigeria was undertaken from August to September, 2016. Five plots with different ecological features were mapped out for the study and the sampling methods used were handpicking and deep netting. A total of 397 snails belonging to two families and six species were collected. The snail species identified were Achatina achatina, Achatina margnata, Achatina fulica, Lanistes various Limicolaria martensis and Limicolaria aurora. The most abundant species was A. achtina with 127 individuals and a relative abundance of 31.98%. It was followed by A. margnata, L aurora, A. fulica and L martensis with relative abundance of 24.2%, 19.4%, 12.34% and 8.8%. Lanistes varicus was the least abundant with 13 individuals and a relative abundance of 3.30%. The plots differed in diversity and abundance, plot A; 114, plot B: 67, plot C. 82, plot D: 49 and plot E. 85. Lanistes varicus which was collected in the present study are listed in the International Union for conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red list as an endangered species as well as promoted intermediate host for Schistosoma species, so there is a need to adopt a sustainable approach in the utilization and conservation of snail species in Mgbowo community. Limicolaria species is a vector of rat lungworm Angrostronglus cantonesis. The study has helped to identify the diversity of snails living within Mgbowo community and their habitats. Thus, this study revealed that Mgbowo Community has low snail diversity. Again, snail picking by farmers and indigenes of Mgbowo for meat is negligible but may prove to be detrimental to the population of snails in the community in the near future.

K. U. Ekwealor   C. F. Iroka   G. C. Ukpaka   P. N. Okeke   P. N. Okafor   and K. E. Okereke   

An investigation on the forest and savanna vegetation types in NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka campus, in Anambra state was carried out. This study was conducted on two communities (Science village forest vegetation type and Bank site savanna vegetation type) both located within the University Awka campus. The plot size of 5000 m^-2 (50 m × 100 m) for the forest and 650 m^-2 (25 m × 26 m) for savanna being their respective minimal areas were used. An analysis of the abundance of plant species above 1m in height in the forest vegetation type revealed that Elaeis Guineensis had the highest basal area (2268.59 M²_ha^-1) and the Gambeya Albida had the lowest basal area (0.72 M²_ha^-1). It also revealed that Elaeis Guineensis had the highest important value index (35.7778 %) and Gambeya Albida had the least significant important value index (0.7589 %). The results further revealed that there were 38 families identified in the community. An analysis of the abundance of plant species above 1 metre in height in the savanna vegetation type revealed that 15 families of plant species were identified in the community. It also revealed that Rothmannia Hispida(61.53M²_ha^-1), had the highest basal area while Napoleana Vogelii had the lowest basal area (1.03M²_ha^-1). It also showed that Terminalia Ivorensis (51.63%) had the highest important value index while Cnestis Ferruginia(1.03%) had the lowest important value index. A critical look at the abundance of undergrowth plant species in the forest vegetation type revealed that 12 families of plant species were identified in the community. It further showed that Setaria Longista had the higher significant relative density (31.38%) and Combretum Racemosum (0.42%), Cola hispid a(0.42%), Andropogangayanus(0.42%), Glyphaea Brevis(0.42%), and Holarrhaeno Flouribunda(0.42%) had the least relative density. The abundance of undergrowth plant species in the savanna vegetation type showed that 9 families of plant species were identified. The result also showed that the community had the plant species diversity value of 0.88. Since soil pH, N, P, K and organic carbon are the five main contributing factors for plant growth and diversity in the study area, natural resources managers must consider the budget and balance of these resources for protection and to ameliorate soil, vegetation degradation and nutrient limitation.

K.U. Ekwealor   C.F. Iroka   G.C. Ukpaka   P.N. Okeke   K.E. Okereke   and P.N. Okafor   

Ecological Survey on a Recently Disturbed Plant Community in Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra State

Jekulin Lipi Saikia   

Deepor Beel, only Ramsar site, is located in south-west of Guwahati, Assam. The Deepor Beel is the only storm water storage basin for the entire Guwahati city besides having enormous environmental and biological importance. But wetland is deteriorating due to various anthropogenic factors. The restoration and conservation of the wetland became the need of the hour due to growing frequent flooding in the Guwahati city. The current uses and historical uses of the wetland by the local community are discussed by focusing on the practices of two indigenous communities who have been dependent on wetland for centuries. These communities are Karbi and Koibortra community. It discusses the reasons for the shift of two communities from indigenous practices. From two different community perspectives, ecosystem services to the local community and its linkages to poverty were discussed. The current state legislature for the conservation of the wetland and its implementation and drawbacks were discussed. This is the direct testimony of the members of the respective community who has been suffering due to degrading condition of the wetland. A framework has been developed to understand the current situation of the Deepor Beel, and its implication on ecosystem services and its possible responses were drafted in this paper.

Onuorah Samuel   Igwemadu Nkiruka   and Odibo Frederick   

Analysis of water boreholes in Ogbaru Communities, Anambra State was carried out during the dry and wet seasons to determine the effect of seasonal variation on their physicochemical characteristics. Fifteen drinking water boreholes were sampled from different locations in the communities. The pH values were in the range of 3.4-8.3; temperature, 28-29℃; electrical conductivity, 15-238us/cm; total suspended solids, 0.00-0.25mg/l; total alkalinity, 4.0-27.0mg/l; total acidity, 2.5-7.5mg/l; total hardness, 30.0-84.0mg/l; calcium hardness, 0.6-3.4mg/l; magnesium hardness, 6.8-18.0mg/l; total chlorides, 7.3-66.5mg/l; sulphates, 0.00-0.04mg/l; cadmium, 0.01-0.32mg/l; lead, 0.00-0.08mg/l; arsenic, 0.00-0.04mg/l and iron, 0.00-0.05mg/l during the dry season while the pH ranged from 4.8 to 8.5; temperature, 25-28℃; electrical conductivity, 41-910us/cm; total suspended solids, 0.03-2.01mg/l; total alkalinity, 12.0-40.0mg/l; total acidity, 5.0-22.5mg/l; total hardness, 45.0-94.0mg/l; calcium hardness, 1.8-10.4mg/l; magnesium hardness, 10.3-21.7mg/l; total chlorides, 52.8-96.6mg/l; sulphates, 0.00-0.06mg/l, cadmium, 0.03-0.34mg/l; lead, 0.01-0.20mg/l; arsenic, 0.00-0.04mg/l and iron, 0.02-0.08mg/l during the wet season. These results showed that the season had pronounced effect on the physicochemical characteristics of the water from the boreholes sampled. Some of the boreholes studied did not comply with the World Health Organization standards for potable water in terms of pH, total acidity, cadmium, lead and arsenic and require adequate treatment before drinking to safeguard the health of the users.

Galgalo Dika   

This paper presents the conditions, management and challenges of common resources in Ethiopia. Robust reviews of relevant articles, policy papers at the national and international level, proceeding conference paper and seminar works were made. As commons are free to all, its conditions are expressed by saying "resource to all is resource to none" and therefore continued overuse puts common in tragedy. In the previous regime, common property right was characterized by complex and intricate systems in Ethiopia. Under current government land is property of government and Ethiopian people. Common resources in Ethiopia have been managed by different formal and indigenous institutions. In different parts of the country, local community have indigenous institutions in management of grazing land, common forest area and water resources that have stayed with them for many centuries. In addition, formal institutions in management of commons are also playing pivotal roles. The main challenges to common resources are absence of sense of belongingness and indigenous institutions in management of commons per se have been highly marginalized by different external factors. Thus, in order for common resource to be managed sustainably indigenous institutions for management of commons have to be encouraged.

Jamal Mohammad Amous   

The Arab countries, especially Saudi Arabia, occupy a prominent place in terms of their uniqueness of proximity to many sources of alternative energy. They are characterized for their long sun shining hours, e.g. Saudi Arabia is of a prime location to harness solar energy because of its year-round sunshine. The average energy from the sunlight falling on Saudi Arabia is 2200 thermal kWh/m². The winds perpetual motion, differences in weather conditions between different areas of the KSA create the opportunity for active air currents. It is characterized by an abundance of plenty underground soft water, salty water traps and plenty amounts of waste waters all over the country. Saudi Arabia was producing 18% of the worlds desalinated waters, It sounds as though the Kingdom recognizes the solar and winds potential it owns, that can be utilized for improving the level of life for the majority of its inhabitants especially those living in dry and or semi-dry isolated places which can be attained by providing the necessary quantities of water for individuals and for governmental interests in these areas.

Joshua Amuzu   Bubu P. Jallow   Amos T. Kabo-Bah   and Sidat Yaffa   

Coastal systems are predominantly delicate to three key drivers related to Climate Change (CC): Sea Level Rise (SLR); ocean temperature and; ocean acidity. This study focused on the impacts realized from SLR. These variables are anticipated to increase with significant threats to the populace and structures of social, cultural or economic importance along Coastal Zones (CZ). This study seeks to: characterize the trend of annual rainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures from 1986- 2016; estimate the land at-risk of being lost to inundation under a 1m SLR scenario and the estimation of the rate of annual land loss for each coastal cell in The Gambia. This study estimates the monetary value of land to be lost and the population at risk of CC impacts in the study area. The results of the study reveal mean annual rainfall increased at a rate of 0.237mm per annum over the CZ. The annual minimum temperature showed a decreasing trend of 0.026℃ while the maximum temperature showed an increasing trend of 0.028℃ annually. By the end of this century, under a 1m SLR scenario, the total land to be lost due to inundation is ~12.46 km² (1,246 ha) with a corresponding economic loss of ~US $788 Million (GMD37 Billion) over the CZ. This land loss is predicted to occur at an approximate rate of 6m annually along the CZ of The Gambia. Over 15,560 people per km² of land are estimated to be at risk of coastal flooding events in the study area.

Joshua Amuzu   

The fisheries sector is a vital source of overseas exchange and income for the financial and social advancement needs in most part of the world. However, challenges like the low level of research and education on the prospects of this sector to front-runners, business-oriented financiers across the Sub-region has contributed to low investment and development of this sector. Giving the prospects this sector presents, Climate Change (CC) impacts may compromise the Coastal Zone's (CZ) ability to deliver benefits derived from fisheries resources. This study seeks to characterize the trend of artisanal and industrial fisheries catches in The Gambia from 1986-2016 with projected trends to the year 2025. The study will further estimate the effects of climate change on the productivity of fisheries resources in River Gambia and; estimate the effects of climate change on shrimp yield on the sheltered coast of The Gambia to the year 2100. The results of the study reveal industrial fishery catches is decreasing at 534 MT annually over the period 1968- 2014. This observed negative trend is predicted to decrease from 4,770 MT in 2014 to 66.7 MT by the year 2025. The artisanal fisheries sector, contrariwise, revealed a positive trend of 1,611 MT per annum from 1986-2016. It is predicted this trend will increase from 58,261.6 MT in 2016 to 70,651.8 MT by the year 2025; this relates to an increase of approximately 21%. By the year 2100, there will be a potential increase of sustainable shrimp yield in The Gambia by 46%, while the productivity of the River Gambia in support of fisheries resources will increase by 13%. This result reveals that by the end of this century, The Gambia maritime space, and its river framework, will continue to be productive in the support of shrimp and other artisanal fisheries resources under the anticipated impacts of CC on the CZ.

Charles Odilichukwu R. Okpala   Giacomo Sardo   and Sergio Vitale   

Fishermen since time immemorial have employed various lighting methods aimed for favourable/successful harvest of fishery products. The latter on the other hand have evolved with habitat constituents for example, the waters, light and other external factors, which contribute to evolve the sensory adaptations. Whilst there is considerable literature about lighting approaches/methods employed in harvest of fishery products, no appraisal concerning the state-of-the-art to best of our knowledge has been performed. In this review, (some) relevant information about lighting methods employed in harvest of fishery products will be summarized under the following sub-headings: (a) Light as resource for fishing; (b) Eye of fish for vision and survival; (c) Catching the fish with light: experimental methods and instrumentation; (d) Light intensities that looks at: (i) attraction and reaction of fish; (ii) active escape of fish; (iii) induced stress of fish; as well as (e) Simulated trawls and conducted surveys. Some recommendations to direct future studies are also summarized.

M. Pashaei   A. Rashki   and Adel Sepehr   

In recent decades' desertification as objectively the degradation of the ecosystems in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas of the wide range of Iran with area more than 85 percent arid and semi-arid area is derived. The purpose of this study is to present an integrated index for vulnerability assessment of desertification based on imagery data at Khorasan Razavi province. At the first was prepared a land cover map of the province for two periods; 2000 and 2013, which was classified in 6 class involving agricultural, pasture, shrub lands, residential areas, desert, and forest. We applied remotely-sensor indices regarding the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), precipitation, soil salinity (SI), evapotranspiration, soil moisture, and land surface temperature (LST), to create an integrated desertification index (IDI). The degree of desertification vulnerability was considered along 14 years from 2000-2014. The results showed that more than 60 percent area of the province is very high and high vulnerable to desertification. Approximately 22% are resistant ecosystems and about 18% classified in medium vulnerable class. Results indicated that vegetation cover changes are a most effective index for desertification process. Evapotranspiration index shows maximum fluctuations during studied periods. The kappa coefficient was measured about 0.75 which confirm the validity of results.

Onuorah Samuel   Soludo Christian   and Odibo Frederick   

The biodeterioration potentials of microorganisms isolated from pig manure was studied using standard methods. The heterotrophic microorganisms isolated from the manure were Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Shigella flexneri, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium resinae, Penicillium expansum, Trichoderma herbarum and Candida tropicalis while all the organisms except Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were the hydrocarbon - utilizing isolates. The most active degraders were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Micrococcus luteus, Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium resinae and the bacterial and fungal consortia that produced the highest turbidity and clarity indicating hydrocarbon utilization. The growth profile of Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium resinae as well as the fungal and bacterial consortia during 35 days of growth in mineral salts-oil medium showed that there was a decrease in the pH and an increase in the viable count of the medium. The highest percentage degradation of the crude oil was by the bacterial consortium (62.0%). This work showed that Pig manure which is generally regarded as a waste product harbours diverse bacteria and fungi which will be useful in remediating oil-polluted environments when applied singly and as a consortia.

Elly Josephat Ligate   Shen-Zeng Wu   and Can Chen   

Sustainable forest production and management require an understanding of how people identify and understand coastal forests ecosystems (CFEs) services and their management. This study was conducted to understand how local people are aware about status of coastal forest services and their implications on the current management options. We conducted a survey at Uzigua Forest Reserve in Bagamoyo district, Pwani Region-Tanzania. Interviews and questionnaires were used to cross-examine 178 respondents followed by one triangulation workshop to fine tune the findings and avoid biased responses. We found that, an understanding of a full range of services provided by coastal forests ecosystems is lacking. Although local people are aware of activities causing forest's degradation, still they don't have alternative livelihood means to sustain life independent of forest resources. These deficits are key factors that hinder efforts for management of coastal forests thus contributing to nonstop degradation of coastal forests along the coastal zone of Tanzania. Efforts are required to ensure that local people are aware about services and management benefits. We hope that these efforts will contribute to stop the loss of existing forest and mitigate impacts on the ecological services provided by these forests.

Onuorah Samuel   Odibo Frederick   and Orji Michael   

Some Sachet water brands sold in Awka, Nigeria were assessed bacteriologically to confirm their compliance with the World Health Organization standard for drinking water. The temperature, pH, total bacterial count, total coliform count, faecal coliform count, faecal Enterococci count and Clostridium perfringens count were determined using standard techniques. The temperature values were 27-29℃; pH, 6.2-7.0; total bacterial count, 35-50cfu/ml; total colifom count, 4-20MPN/100ml; faecal coliform count, 0-10MPN/100ml; faecal Enterococci count, 0-5MPN/100ml while Clostridium perfringens were absent in all the brands assessed. The bacterial isolates were Escherichia coli (9.7%), Staphylococcus aureus (18.0%), Enterobacter aerogenes (17.5%), Bacillus cereus (14.6%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (20.1%), Proteus mirabilis (12.1%) and Enterococcus faecalis (8.0%). Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis and Enterococcus faecalis were isolated from 66.67%, 46.67%, 40.00%, 33.33%, 53.33%, 26.67% and 20.00% respectively of the brands. The coliforms (27.2%) were the predominant of all the bacterial isolates in the samples. Most of the brands assessed were of poor bacteriological quality and are therefore unfit for drinking without adequate treatment. Routine monitoring of sachet water production and handling by regulatory bodies is commended to handling by regulatory bodies is recommended to safeguard the health of the consuming public.

Mina Shiravi   and Adel Sepehr   

In this article, a desertification susceptibility map was developed over Khorasan Razavi ecoregions located in northeastern Iran with arid and semi-arid environments. For this purpose, a fuzzy algorithm regarding Dempster-Shafer theory was applied based on six main indicators including wind erosion, aridity severity, soil erodibility, landuse type, salinization and vegetation cover density chosen by Delphi techniques. The indicators were combined under linear fuzzy function and gained to a membership function for each layer. The results indicated about 43.5 % region is susceptible to soil erodibility; also cold hyper-arid and ultra-cold arid deserts ecoregions show a high range of sustainability to desertification.

Msafiri Y. Mkonda   and Xinhua He   

Numerous documentations have paid a few attentions to the mapping of soil organic carbon (SOC) in Tanzania. To any country, the estimation of SOC is very important as provide social, ecological and economic values just to mention a few. Here we reviewed over 55 publications be journal papers, government and international organization reports to ascertain on the amount of SOC, factors influencing its accumulation, and highlight its ecological and socio-economic significance. Despite of the limited information, the Eastern Arc Mountains seem to have an average carbon stock of 100 - 400MgCha^-1 in the undisturbed and 85 MgCha^-1 in the disturbed areas; while the semi-arid areas have about 0.4-10 MgCha^-1 only. In most cases, SOC were highest on the surface (0-20cm) and decreased with increasing soil depth. This is because most anthropogenic activities i.e. organic fertilizations take place at the top sub-soils. Edaphic and climate factors had as well significant contribution to the accumulation of SOC. Rainfall and temperature appeared to facilitate numerous soil processes that lead to SOC accumulation. Potentially, SOC improves soil fertility for higher crop yields, mitigates the emission of greenhouse gases and eventually improves the people's livelihoods. For example, maize yields were significantly higher under SOC 1.9 ton per hectare than has without it 0.9 ton per hectare. In addition thousands of carbons dioxides tones are seized in the soil. Otherwise, its offset would have serious atmospheric pollution. We therefore, recommends for more original researches on SOC to harness its economic, social and ecological potentials for the benefits of the people.

Msafiri Y. Mkonda   and Xinhua He   

Tanzanian agriculture employs about 80% of the national labour force and most of these are rural dwellers. The country has about 44 million hectares of arable land but less than 24% of the area has been harnessed. Similarly, the country has inland rivers, lakes and other water bodies that could supply water for irrigation, however only 2% of the irrigation potential has been exploited. Here we reviewed 54 scientific publications on potentials, challenges and prospects of agriculture in the country and found that; its production trend has been fluctuating over time in a decreasing manner. Tanzania Agricultural Policy aims at stimulating agricultural growth from 3.6% to at least 6%. However, inadequate market systems, transportation and storage infrastructures among others things, have been the major hindrances to make agriculture a commercial industry. On top of that, the adverse impacts of climate change have exacerbated the situation. Similarly, lack of political willingness and shortage of capital for agricultural investment have increased the magnitude of the problem. This paper highlights on the opportunities, challenges and prospects of agriculture with the aim of transforming it from subsistence to commercial farming. Therefore, to increase agricultural productivity and transform the sector to commercial industry; innovative strategies and technologies with great political willingness of the government are urgently needed to address both natural and man-made challenges facing the sector.

Msafiri Y. Mkonda   and Xinhua He   

Kilimo Kwanza which means "Agriculture First" in English, is an initiative launched by the Tanzanian government in 2006 to spearhead the transformation of subsistence to commercial agriculture for curbing poverty. The initiative aimed at solving constrains facing farmers (small, medium and/or large scale). Its implementation is based on ten milestones some of them are the provision of credit to farmers through Tanzania Agricultural Development Bank, good governance, establishment of infrastructure, coordination and evaluation of the milestones. Through "Kilimo Kwanza" for farming credits, the government has pledged 500 million USD to TADB in 2015, though the deal has not made yet. Compared to other initiatives, the special aspect that "Kilimo Kwanza" possesses is that; it is people centered. It works under the patronage of Tanzania National Business Council which involves both private and public dialogue on strategic issues for economic development. Despite of all these efforts and instruments of "Kilimo Kwanza", Tanzanian agriculture has remained the main employer of Tanzanian labour force (70%), account 24% of the GDP, 30% of export and 65% of raw materials for domestic industry. However, this contribution is insufficient compared to the vision of the initiative. To address the constraints facing Tanzanian agriculture, there is a need to think more widely aiming at arresting all barriers with a clear and committed political will. Among others: motivation/incentives to farmers, extension services, equipping good infrastructures ranging from irrigation, transport and storage facilities. Then, the flow of farm inputs from local government authorities to small and medium scale farmers is a governance issue. The people responsible for the flow of these inputs are not playing their roles despite of the clear directives from the government. Similarly, policies, plans and programmes are well stipulated but, implementation to reach intended outcomes needs further efforts.

Govind Katalakute   Vasant Wagh   Dipak Panaskar   and Shrikant Mukate   

The agriculture sector is the backbone of Indian economy, which contributes a major share of GDP of the country. Last few decades agriculture losses have grown due to irregularity in monsoon and change in climatic conditions over Indian sub-continent. Maharashtra state is developed and industrialized state in the country contributing highest GDP in the Indian economy. The present study assesses the effects of droughts on environmental, agricultural and socio-economic status during the year of 2011-2016 in Maharashtra state. The state occupies 50% of the drought prone area. The state is experiencing deficit rainfall once in a 5 to 6 year, and severe drought conditions once in 8 to 9 years. In Maharashtra state, the % to normal rainfall is gradually decreasing from the year 2011-2015. It shows large spatial variability in rainfall all over the Maharashtra state throughout the year confirms that Marathwada, Nashik, Amravati and Nagpur divisions received less rainfall in the year 2014 and 2015. Aurangabad division has marked as the lowest water availability in the reservoir of Maharashtra from the year 2012 - 2015. The overall agricultural yield in Kharif and Rabi season is decreased to a considerable extent in the 2014- 15, which is near about 50% deficit in pulses, oilseeds and cotton as compared to the year 2013-14. Individuals and communities of Aurangabad, Amravati and Nagpur divisions (Cotton belt) are under pressure to cope with drought and its consequences. The farmer suicide cases were reported in the year 2015 (2016 cases) as compared to the year 2011 to 2014.

A. O. Kenan   and E. Chirenje   

The major uranium deposits types are quartz-pebble conglomerate of the Central Rand Group (Witwatersrand Supergroup) and the Dominion Group, sandstone of the Karoo Uranium Province, surficial deposits of the Namaqualand region, as well as coal of the Springbok Flats Basin. Recent exploration activities (both greenfields and near-mine) have increased the resource potentials of these deposits. South Africa's Council for Geoscience has conducted high resolution magnetic and radiometric surveys in the Namaqualand region. Witwatersrand Basin is the only deposit where uranium mining is active at present in South Africa. Total uranium production in 2015 was 448 t. However, with production expected to increase in the Witwatersrand Basin, production is expected to reach 700 t U by the end of 2018. Furthermore, with uranium production envisaged to begin in the Karoo Uranium Province, uranium production may exceed 1000 t U by the year 2020.

Nabalegwa Muhamud Wambede   

The study analysed the socio-economic factors influencing farmers' adoption to soil conservation technologies around Mt. Elgon. Primary data was collected in eight sub-counties of the four districts that make Bugisu sub-region. The differences between adopter and non-adopters was analysed on the basis of socio-economic factors. The factors that were considered in this study included; farm size, education levels, family size, family income, training in soil conservation, membership to local formal organisation and accessibility to credit. Across sectional household survey design was used in the study. Systematic sampling was used to obtain a sample of 400 households. Qualitative analysis and chi-square tests were used to analyze the data collected. The study revealed that only 54% of the sampled households were found to have adopted soil conservation, an indication that the process of adopting these technologies has been considerably slow, given that these methods were introduced in the 1960s by the colonial government. The chi-square test results revealed that six of the seven factors considered in this study, significantly influenced farmers' adoption of soil conservation. Only family size was found to be insignificant. The conclusion that can be drawn from the above findings is that organisations promoting soil conservation in Bugisu sub-region should prioritise the factors that influence farmers' adoption of soil conservation strategies.

S. Barinova   and R. Romanov   

The ancient locality of charophytes is described from the Sindyanna pool, Upper Jordan River Basin, Golan Heights region of Israel. The associated algal diversity was revealed, and ecological assessment of aquatic environment was obtained with bio-indication methods. Algal community was represented by fifty four species one of which is charophyte macroalga Chara globularis Thuiller. The Chara was found in mass growths in the studied pool. Bio-indication and chemical variables characterize the pool environment as eutrophic, low- to middle organically polluted, belonging to water quality Class III. Fifty five species-indicators in community reflect water quality as fresh, temperate temperature, low- to middle alkaline, and enough saturated with oxygen. Seasonality of algal community and water quality show a higher organic pollution in summer caused by livestock grazing impact. Anoxia, high water pH, increasing of nitrates enrichments in dry period together with decreasing of species richness and index WESI which reflect some of toxicity impact, can be result of water pollution. We recommend for monitoring the ancient Sindyanna natural aquatic object in the Upper Jordan River Basin, and Chara globularis as indicator-species of ecosystem resistance to pollution.

Mindi Lehew   Randy Gimblett   and Francisco Valenzuela   

Recreation areas represent a socio-ecological system in which the primary purpose is to sustain the ecologic functions of the environment while also providing satisfying recreation experiences. Sustainability in a recreation area requires that the components that support this system are maintained or increased over time. These components can be thought of as ‘capital'. The focus of this study, social capital, examines the human element of this system by recognizing the potential value added by the visitor in terms of overall sustainability. The goal of this research was to measure the potential to build social capital amongst the visitors in the Sabino Canyon Recreation Area (SCRA) of the Coronado National Forest, United States, as a means of contributing to the overall sustainability of the recreation area. Recreation visitors were surveyed to determine their values surrounding the SCRA. The survey results defined visitor values by their willingness to devote time and finances, respect for the environment and resources, and actual statements of value. Based on responses to the survey questions, each respondent's relationship with the SCRA was characterized as contributing to the system's sustainability, having no effect, or reducing its sustainability. Fundamental features of social groups that allow individuals to work together for a common purpose are present at SCRA. By uniting visitors around their shared values, managers may be able to catalyze the collective efforts of social groups to foster a mutual commitment to the sustainability of the SCRA.

S. Mohammed Irshad   

There are many international agreements and treaties are exist to manage commons. The Ramsar Convention of 1971 was one among them. Many wetlands across the world have listed as Ramsar site. Ramsar Agreement meant to prevent depletion of the commons and put protective measures. However, this paper explains the depletion and bad protection of one of the wetlands listed in the Ramsar list-Sasthamkottaa Fresh Water Lake in Kerala, India. A part of the Sasthamkottaa Fresh Water Lake and the adjacent Kallada Rives are dried up due to sand mining, however, the local community and state (including local self-government) had not put any effort to prevent the lake from drying up within the jurisdiction. It results a total chaos in governing the wetland. The state government planned many protection measures; however, none of them got implemented. It results a legitimisation of the exploitation which influence the local resource governance

Rudra Narayan Pradhan   Alok R. Chorghe   and Anup Kumar Nayak   

The Asian elephant's (Elephas maximus) feeding behavior with food preference was studied in Satkosia Tiger Reserve area between 2011 to 2014.The major objective of the present study is to document the fodder plant species consumption by elephants. Though the study area houses a good number of plant species only 110 species were identified as elephant fodder plants. The food trail of elephant was observed as branch breaking, bark peeling, twig breaking, flower plucking and stem twisting uprooting in different regions of study area during different seasons. Alteration of predominantly browsing strategy with that of grazing around the year was related to seasonal variation of food plants. Consumption of grass species (55%) was highest as compared to trees (37%), shrubs (5%), and herbs (3%). The elephants extensively fed on the plant species like Aegle marmelos, Careya arborea, Bauhinia racemosa, Kydia calycina, Bauhinia vahlii, Asparagus racemosus, Helicteres isora, Mallotus philippinensis, Madhuca indica, Zizyphus mauritiona, Mimosa pudica, Smilax zeylanica and Diosporea species. They were fond fruits of Mangifera indica in summer. A high degree of variation in dicot- monocot ratio (47:63)) was marked during identification of elephant fodder plant by direct observation. Microscopic analysis of dung showing a high degree of variation in average dicot- monocot ratio suggested that the food plant selection of elephant was highly opportunistic and seasonal.

Sophia Barinova   and Roman Romanov   

First study of new locality in the Ein Afeq Natural Reserve with charophytes in the Akko Plain of Northern Israel has been implemented for revealing of algal diversity and ecological assessment of the water object environment by bio-indication methods. Altogether seventy one species of algae including two of them macro-algae Chara vulgaris Linnaeus and C. connivens P. Salzmann ex A. Braun were revealed. Chara was found in massive growth in two newest pools. Bio-indication and chemical variables characterize the pools environment as eutrophic, low- to middle organic polluted, Class II-III of water quality. Water was fresh, temperate, low alkaline, and well saturated by oxygen. Succession of algal community and higher aquatic plants shows increasing of organic pollution from 2005 to 2015 as a result of recreation impact. We can recommend the Ein Afeq pools for monitoring of natural aquatic object in the Akko Plane as reference site, and Chara vulgaris and C. connivens as climatic and successional indicators.

Sophia Barinova   and Roman Romanov   

First study of new locality the Milkha Stream, the Lower Jordan River tributary, with charophyte algae, in semi-arid region of Israel has been implemented for revealing of algal diversity and ecological assessment of the water object environment by bio-indication methods. Altogether forty seven species from five taxonomic Divisions of algae and cyanobacteria including one of them macro-algae Chara gymnophylla A. Braun were revealed in the Milkha stream. Chara was found in growth in the lower part of studied stream but away from community in followed years. Bio-indication and chemical variables characterize the charophyte site environment as fresh, low alkaline, and low to middle organic pollution with mainly eutrophic state. Saprobity index S is fluctuated in small range (1.32-2.06) and reflect low to middle organic pollution, Class II-III of Water Quality. Statistical analysis divide environmental variables to natural and anthropogenic and found that charophyte-related species prefer natural, whereas diatom dominants prefer polluted waters which increased during present study. The Milkha Stream studied site is recommended for regularly monitoring of chemical and biological variables in purpose the watershed protection.

Amadi A. N.    Tukur Aminu.    Okunlola I. A.    Olasehinde, P. I.    and Jimoh M. O.    

The influence of bedrock on the quality of groundwater in Zango, North-west Nigeria was evaluated in this study. Water quality parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, total dissolved solids, nitrate, sulphate, chloride, phosphate, bicarbonate, fluoride, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, manganese, lead, zinc, cadmium, chromium and copper were used in assessing the impact of bedrock geochemistry on groundwater quality. Zango Local Government Area of Katsina State is underlain by Gundumi Formation, Chad Formation, Basement Complex Rocks and Younger Granites suites. The groundwater in the area shows characteristics signatures in major and elemental composition. Based on these signatures, the geochemical evolution of groundwater from the four different aquifer-types is quantitatively described by the interaction of the groundwater with the rock-forming minerals released into the groundwater system through natural processes of weathering and dissolution in the flow path. High concentration of fluoride, major and trace elements were observed in areas outcropped by Basement Complex Rocks and Younger Granites suites. The observed concentration ranges of fluoride, major and trace elements is a reflection of the natural background concentration and a landmark in geochemical characterization of groundwater from different aquiferous units. The result of the analysis is an indication that groundwater can be grossly contaminated by critical element. The concentration map developed for fluoride and other elements for the study was in agreement within the interpretation as the area dominated with sedimentary formations show low concentration while the region occupy by younger granites show high fluoride concentration. This implies that the granites in the area are composed of mineral containing these elements. Communities living in the granite/rhyolite dominated region where cases of fluorosis and heavy metal contamination have been observed should discontinue the use of groundwater from the area for domestic and drinking purposes. The Government should provide an alternative source of drinking water for the people.

S. David Noel   and M. R. Rajan   

Evaluation of organic pollution by Palmer's Algal Genus Index and physico-chemical and biological characters of Vaigai River water of India and its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes was carried out. The sampling points were selected on the basis of their importance. Analysis of physico-chemical parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, chloride, sulphate, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, and sodium, potassium has been carried out. Organic pollution was assessed by employing Palmers algal pollution index. From the above analysis it is observed that all the sampling points are biologically contaminated due to good supply of nutrients into the river Vaigai and the high physico-chemical parameters supported enrichment of river water with nutrients.

Suzan M. Shahin   and Mohammed A. Salem   

This paper will provide an inside of the situation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as a country that has limited fresh water resources. This fact in conjunction with the sever depletion of groundwater aquifers (which contribute to 70% of total water resources in the UAE). The sharp population growth could create critical challenges in providing the irrigation requirements for the agricultural sector, required to reach food security in this country. The main purpose of this work is to investigate whether the future watering requirements for crop production purposes could be met and sustained in 2030. This would be done through, reviewing the available irrigation resources and predicting the projected demand, required to cover the agricultural sector. The conclusion indicates that, the total predicted watering requirement depending on the groundwater resources for crops production would be approximately 2198 million m³/year. On the other hand, the year 2030 could be the first year with no more supply from groundwater resources. Leaving the future of the agricultural sector in a real critical situation, that can best be mitigated by adopting the best sustainable agricultural practices.

S. Barinova   and R. Romanov   

A new locality of Chara is described from the Nevoria pool, Upper Galilee region of Israel. The associated algal diversity is revealed, and ecological assessment aquatic environment is obtained with bio-indication methods. Algal community includes ten species two of which are charophytes Chara gymnophylla A.Braun and Spirogyra sp. The charophytes are found in mass growths in the studied pool. Bio-indication and chemical variables characterize the pool environment as eutrophic, low- to middle organically polluted, belonging to water quality Class II-III. The water is fresh, temperate, low alkaline, and well saturated with oxygen. Seasonality of algal community and water quality show a higher organic pollution in March caused by recreation impact at the end of the rainy season. The water is appreciably clearer in November at the end of the dry season, accompanied with a decrease of algal diversity. We recommend the Nevoria pool as reference site for monitoring of natural aquatic object in the Upper Galilee Mountains, for which Chara gymnophylla can be used as a climatic indicator.

Sophia Barinova   Andrew Fatyukha   and Roman Romanov   

First study of macrophytes and Charophytes of three protected lakes in Donetsk region of Ukraine has been implemented for ecological assessment of the lakes environment by bio-indication methods. Altogether five species of mactophytes and three species of macroalgae were revealed. Rare species Chara dominii Vilh. was found in massive grow in the Flora Lake. The lakes Flora and Molodezhnyy are mesotrophic and low-to middle organic polluted, while the Azotnyy Lake is oligotrophic, low organically polluted. Statistical methods show that organic pollution come mostly from ground waters enriched by mine waters, and together with soluble sodium from surface runoff they are stimulated species growth. Lake Molodezhnyy can be used as referent site for monitoring, whereas the Azotnyy Lake needs more attention in study of toxic substances, and the Flora Lake for organic matter influence. Bio-indication methods together with statistic approaches can be used as sensitive instrument for ecosystem state assessment and watershed protection in the technogenically impacted area such as Donetsk region of Ukraine.

Fitsum Dechasa Kibret   and Fikirte Demissie Tulu   

In rural Ethiopia, although considerable efforts have been made to improve and expand access to potable water supply, many Ethiopian rural communities still suffer from lack of safe drinking water. This research work intends to assess the challenges of potable water supply in selected rural kebeles of Gonji Kolela woreda in Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. Survey findings of the research show that, of the total 292 sample respondents those who use hand dug well, developed spring and rope pump accounts 47.9%, 12% and 8.9% respectively. The remaining 31.2% of the respondents are still using either river or unprotected spring for their domestic consumption. Evidences from the data revealed that the challenges for adequate provision and management of improved water schemes in the study area are multifaceted including lack of adequate technical and financial support from zonal and regional water resource bureau; inadequate skilled man power; inaccessibility of underground water or intermission of the water after digging water wells; lack of adequate support from the community; inaccessibility for transportation and absence of spare parts shop and equipments in the nearby area. Thus, strengthening the institutional capacity in the planning of water supply projects at local level should be a timely measure to increase the adequacy of improved water supply and sustain the functionality of the existing improved water supply schemes of the area.

Fitsum Dechasa Kibret   and Fikirte Demissie Tulu   

This study focuses on Bahir Dar Tannery, to assess its socio-economic impacts and examine the level at which the tannery implemented EIA recommended mitigation measures. To achieve the objectives of this research primary data was collected from different group. A total of 100 household heads who reside near the tannery; 100 workers and one technical manager of the tannery; and three officers of Environmental Protection Agency were consulted. As a labor based export oriented industry the tannery is beneficial for the surrounding community by creating employment opportunity and for the country at large by generating foreign currency. Despite such benefits, due to the absence of proper waste treatment and disposal system and inadequate safety equipments, the tannery is causing adverse impacts on the workers and the community. The tannery disposes its solid and liquid wastes, with little if any treatment, to the nearby Abbay (Blue Nile) river which is the main source of water for the surrounding community. Hence, the community is exposed to different health hazards like asthma and water related diseases. Their domestic animals are also adversely affected as they usually drink the river water. Although Bahir Dar tannery established before the endorsement of Ethiopia’s EIA proclamation (Proclamation No 299/2000), the tannery is expected to have adjustments to make its activities environmentally friendly. Intervention programs of the tannery should, therefore, aim at implementing a proper and more efficient waste treatment and disposal system.

Rudra Narayan Pradhan   Omprakash Rautaraya   Prasanna Behera   and Sujogya Kumar Panda   

The present paper provides the status of medicinal plant species growing in and around the tribal settlements of Mandaragiri region and emphasizes on their medicinal uses. A total number of eighty two species belonging to seventy four genera and forty families are represented as medicinal value. Species such as Acacia catechu, Acacia nilotica, Buchanania lanzan, Emblica officinalis, Gardenia sp., Indigofera cassioides, Shorea robusta and Woodfordia fruticosa are rare at Mandaragiri forest. Whereas, plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Santalum album, Streblus asper and Spondias pinnata are endangered species at Mandaragiri forest.

Sophia Barinova   Roman Romanov   and Cuneyt Nadir Solak   

Chara hispida (L.) Hartm. has been found in the Işıklı Lake (Western Anatolia). The specimens are described; distribution and ecology of C. hispida are discussed. The bio-indication shows that the Işıklı Lake is mainly an oligotrophic state with a trend to a mesotrophic state, and fresh low-alkaline water with low to middle organic pollution. A check-list of charophytes was compiled. There are sixteen species of charophytes known from Turkey, including 13 species of Chara and 3 species of Nitella.

Hossein Malekinezhad   

Among interesting Climatic Parameters (CPs) of different climates, it may be asserted that evaporation has received a particular attention. The present study, by considering 14 stations in arid central and southern parts of Iran, has tried to determine the most important factors affecting evaporation through using Factor Analysis (FA). At first, by conducting Cluster Analysis (CA) through Minitab software, Homogeneous Regions (HRs) separated at the investigating areas. Then, the relation between climatic factors and evaporation on the basis of monthly routine was obtained in each region. Finally, by the help of accomplished regression equations, evaporation was calculated and MAE or RMSE statistics were applied to determine the precision of each relation. The results show that, firstly, factor analysis is an appropriate method for determining climatic parameters affecting evaporation in the regions. Secondly, as far as the relation between independent parameters and evaporation and priority of the main factors has been proved previously, multiple regressions may be used with great confidence to calculate evaporation and consequently evapotranspiration. The results also indicate that the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures (Tmax – Tmin), Tmax and the difference between maximum and minimum relative humidity (Hmax – Hmin) are, respectively, the main factors which influence the evaporation value at the Homogeneous Region (HR1) which is spread along Iran's water borders having a warm and humid climate. Generally, the Temperature Related Parameters (TPR) including Tmax – Tmin, Tmax, Tmin and Tmean at the HR1 are found as the main factors affecting evaporation. At the HR2 and HR3, wind speed, Tmax and Hmax – Hmin are identified as the main parameters and cloudiness as the second one. The results show that the wind speed and the cloudy times of day have a more effective role in the amount of evaporation rather than the temperature related factors.

Nagarajan R   Venkataraman G   and Snehamani   

Snow avalanche events depend not only on the accumulated snow cover over the mountain slope but also the subsequent snowfall intensity. Spatial snow holding capacity of mountain slopes and the probability of initiation of snow avalanches over parts of Beas River valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, was attempted using maps showing terrain characteristics and satellite images along with meteorological information. Contributory factors in retaining the snowfall, snow fall variation and snow pack characteristics were ranked and assigned weightage towards the avalanche initiation based on the reported events in the region. Spatial distribution of Snow Accumulation Zone (SAZ), Snow fall Area(SFA) and Snow Pack Stability (SPS) assessment criteria was developed.

April S. Ostrom   and Thomas C. Chesnes   

Pomacea maculata is a freshwater snail native to various regions of South America. In the 1990's invasive populations of P. maculata began to establish in Texas, Florida, and Georgia. These snails have a high fecundity rate and feed on macrophytes. Water bodies in southern Florida undergo frequent fluctuations in water levels; most are controlled by pumps, culverts, gates and levees. A proposed control method for these snails is the inundation of the egg clutches. This study compared the hatching success of unsubmerged egg clutches with the hatching success of partially submerged egg clutches, the growth rates of snails hatched in the treatments, and determined if snails hatched in submerged conditions are viable to a shell length that exceeds 25 mm, a size typically capable of reproduction. Hatchling success was not significantly different amongst treatments; likewise, growth rates were similar despite inundation. Pomacea maculata egg clutches submerged at various times during their incubation can become detached from the vegetation and sink or float. Floating egg clutches can be transported through water control structures and canals, thus facilitating the spread to non-impacted areas. Manual methods for removal of egg clutches and adults may prove more effective in control efforts.

Sanjay Kumar Swain   and Malaya Ranjan Mahananda   

The effect of monocrotophos an organophosphorus insecticide on the growth of tadpoles of a dominant rice field anuran species (Limnonectis limnocharis) was studied. Prior to growth experiment a 96h toxicity test was conducted in different concentrations of monocrotophos to calculate LC₅₀ value by probit analysis. The 96h of LC₅₀ value for the tadpoles was found to be 0.59 mg l-. Based on the result of toxicity test and recommended field agricultural dose (0.60 mg l-) three sublethal concentration of monocrotophos were taken to study the growth of three days old tadpoles up to metamorphic climax stage and it was compared with that of the controls. Analysis of data revealed that after 35 days the length and body weight of tadpoles decreased by 7.8, 13 and 21.4% and by 6.03, 6.74 and 8.8% in 0.25, 0.30 and 0.35 mg l- respectively from the control condition. The decrease in length and body weight of tadpoles also caused increase in duration of metamorphosis. The metamorphic climax was reached after 38, 41 and 44 days in 0.25, 0.30 and 0.35 mg l- monocrotophos respectively, instead of 35 days in control condition. The above results indicates that application of pesticides even below the recommended dose cause ecological problems and non target beneficial species are victimized. This finding supports that organic farming and controlled use of pesticides for conservation of frogs in the paddy field.

Zahid Murtaza   Waqas Ahmad   Jamil Shafi   Muhammad Shoaib   Muhammad Aqeel Sarwar   and Muhammad Asif Shehzad   

The experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of prolonged irrigated fodders on soil key parameters and agronomic water use efficiency. The experiment was laid-out in Randomized Complete Block design with split plot arrangement having four replications with a net subplot size of 7 m × 3 m. Treatments consisted of two crops (pearl millet and sorghum) and three irrigation levels (2, 3 and 4 numbers of irrigation). Soil parameters, i.e. organic carbon, particle density, bulk density, porosity were measured at three depth, i.e. 0-5 cm, 5-10 and 10-15 cm. Agronomic parameters were also recorded such as plant height, fresh biomass and dry biomass. The results of this study showed that the maximum fresh biomass of sorghum (27.96 Mg ha-1) and of pearl millet (28.16 Mg ha-1) was observed with treatment where three number of irrigation was applied. The maximum agronomic water use efficiency was also observed with three number of irrigation in both the crops. The minimum soil bulk density and maximum percentage of pore spaces was observed with I2 where three number of irrigation was used in case of pearl millet and sorghum.

Naif A.Haddad   Sharaf A. Al-kheder   and Leen A. Fakhoury   

Using Al Mujib wildlife natural reserve in Jordan as a case study (one of the largest reserves in Jordan established in 1987, and the lowest elevation of about -400m on earth), this paper, is an attempt to address assisting and developing ecotourism sustainability to initiate the role of planning and management using spatial documentation in nature reserves, focusing on the existing situation, the cultural significance, the constraints, the threats and other planning and management aspects that the reserve is facing. The paper attempts to develop a platform for government officials, scholars, co-management practitioners and key stakeholders to discuss the issue of sustainability enhancement and management of the reserve, in relation to a GIS monitoring data base.

G. Yehuda   S.S. Barinova   T. Krugman   T. Pavlicek   Y. Nov   and E. Nevo   

Genetic diversity of Chara populations found in Israeli Negev Desert streams was analyzed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) in 31 individuals. The adjacent streams Avdat and Aqev were used as study sites in the Ein Avdat National Park. A Jaccard phylogenetic tree, based on 468 loci, showed clear separation between four Chara species: C. vulgaris, C. contraria, C. gymnophylla and Chara sp. The last two species served as out groups from the Northern Israel. In both C. vulgaris and C. contraria, genetic differences were found between the populations originating in the two streams: higher private loci number (80 vs. 24 in C. vulgaris and 58 vs. 25 in C. contraria) and polymorphic loci level (45% vs. 23% in C. vulgaris and 39% vs. 21% in C. contraria) were found in Avdat compared to Aqev. The genetic divergence revealed within and between the two streams is presumably adaptive and determined by natural selection associated with ecological stress. Sunlight intensity, water level and pH were found to be the main ecological variables associated with species clustering, through selection, in the varying ecology of the sampling stations along each of the streams. Evidence for gene flow between and within the streams was found using the structure analysis, suggesting that sampling sites condition is the regulating factor for oospores establishing, and hence, gene flow occurs more often between sampling sites with similar ecological conditions.

Anil Kumar and Raj Kumar 

The use of renewable energy resources is broadly increasing for power generation, so the engine quality producer gas which comes from gasifier must be evaluated for engine applications. The Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) generates electricity for lighting & other end uses. The system consists of a gasifier coupled with ventury scrubber, coarse filter filled with wood chips; two fine filters filled with saw dust and one security fabric filter. The gases produced are cooled in water scrubber and then tar is removed in subsequent filters and gases are supplied to Spark Ignition Engine for operating AC Generator set. The unit is tested with resistive loading, which increases gradually from 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% & 100%. The cold and hot gasification efficiencies are 75.41% & 80.85% respectively. The biomass consumption rate is 27kg/h. The air and gas flow rate are measured 20.79 m³/h and 79m³/h respectively. The temperature above the grate is 603℃. The tar level after gas cooling and cleaning unit is counted 9 mg/Nm³.

Abdullahi Elmi Mohamed 

The Juba and Shabelle Rivers in the Horn of Africa are shared by Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Most of the rivers’ runoff originates from Ethiopia. Being in a water-scarce and war-ravaged region, the rivers cross areas of border dispute. The paper examines the physical and developmental aspects of the rivers, and analyses resulting trans-boundary river management issues. Methodology used is document reviews, literature analysis and interviews. The rivers supply important economic areas in Somalia. As an outcome from the master plan studies of the basins, Ethiopia is implementing large dams for hydropower generation and large irrigation schemes. No agreements exist between the basin countries. These unilateral major water development projects will have substantial adverse impacts on Somalia. The sum of existing water uses and planned demands in both countries will exceed available water resources in the rivers. Potential disputes over the shared rivers are therefore likely to rise. Turning this risk of conflict into a sustainable peace and development process in the region, the paper presents and analyses existing & potential opportunities for cooperation over the rivers for mutual benefit sharing. Broader regional economic integration through river cooperation seems to be the only and necessary solution for the looming crisis.

Hun-Kyun Bae 

How retardation of river flow, resulted from weir construction, affected on algal growth were investigated. 14 sampling points along with The Nakdong River, South Korea, were chosen. Monthly samples were taken from March 2012 to October 2012 to check changes of numbers and types of algae. The dominant algae changed from diatom during spring to blue-green algae during summer. Diatom became a dominant one again for several sampling points by the time which air temperature started to go down, September and then they were replaced as dominant species for most sampling points at October. As results, changes of dominant algae showed seasonal effects and the most important factor for algal growth at this region is the changing pattern of temperature.

S. Barinova 

From 1950s till now only seven species of Rhodophyta were recorded from continental waters of Israel. Among them, the most abundant are the species of Audouinella that inhabit fresh or brackish waters of lakes, pools and rivers. Our findings of two species of this genus inhabiting the fresh clear water Oren River, the middle reaches of the polluted Qishon River (A. pygmaea (Kütz.) Weber-van Bosse)), as well as the middle reaches of the strongly impacted Lower Jordan River (A. hermannii (Roth) Duby in De Candolle). These findings led us to conclude the latter species preferred low to moderate salinity and a high calcium concentration and is relatively resistant to organic pollution. Bangia atropurpurea (Mertens ex Roth) C. Agardh and Hildenbrandia rivularis (Liebmann) J. Agardh are the sensitive species sporadically observed in a few habitats only and preferring the slightly mineralized slow streaming carbonate waters with insignificant organic pollution. Batrachospermum gelatinosum (Linnaeus) De Candolle is only one new for Israel species that has been found in the Meshushim stream. The likewise sensitive Phragmonema sordidum Zopf is consider as a lost species because of the loss of habitat. We do not confirm finding of red algae Paralemanea catenata (Kützing) Vis et Sheath in the Banias stream.

Tahseen Jafry Ashraf Poswal Bushra Raza Ahmad   and Gulam Ali 

The adoption of new resource conserving technologies (RCT) (such as the zero till drill) which impacts on crop yields and/or household budgets is significant to the livelihoods of resource-poor farming families in terms of their food security and income. This study was conducted with farmers from four socio-economic groups, i.e. landless, marginal, subsistence or food surplus/cash cropping in 2 villages in Shekhupura district and 2 villages in Sialkot district of Pakistan to determine their ability to adopt zero till drills as an approach to improving wheat production and thereby increasing their food security status. Participatory semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect information. Our findings indicate that it is those farmers who have sufficient land to guarantee household food security throughout the year that can take the necessary risk of adopting new technologies such as the zero till drill. But that this finding was not uniform across all the villages. Many landless and marginal farmers were confused regarding the benefits of using the zero-till drill for wheat production. Farmers who had experienced using the zero-till drill complained of soil compaction, increased pest problems in the following rice crop and lack of back-up support It was recommended that more emphasis is put on disseminating information concerning RCTs at gatherings such as Haweli that involve all farmer groups but especially marginal farmers. These farmers could be organised into Citizen Community Boards so that they can access government funding for agricultural equipment, including zero-till drills which would allow the sharing of equipment especially by the poorest groups.

M. G. Merkusheva and S.B. Sosorova 

This paper studies the influence exerted by the degradation of dry steppe grasslands and deflation on the content, reserves, and composition of humus in the chestnut soils of Western Transbaikal. In the deflated soils there is a reduction of stocks of humus and its components. Loss of humin acids in the soil contribute to the development fulvatization humus. A decrease of humic compounds depends from the degree of deflation soils. Dehumidification and arenaceous of deflated soils leads to a sharp drop in their fertility, creating a basis for the development movable sands. These negative processes are shown to transform the structure of microbial cenoses and to decrease the enrichment of soils with microorganisms and accumulation of microbial mass in them by changing the soil humus state.

Manoj Kuamr Upadhyay and S  N Bahuguna 

Background: The present study deals with the reproductive behavior and breeding biology of Indian Pika (Ochotona Roylei .) Inhabited in the snow-fed Tungnath areas of Garhwal Himalaya Uttarakhand, India, at the altitude of 2200 to 4500 meters at sea level. Materials and Methods: The observation is based on the data collected during March, 2007 to September 2010 from the high altitude of Tungnath Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand India. Results and Discussions: The animal breeds once in the year during the May to June at the age of 7 -10 months. The gestation period is 28 to 30 days and having fecundity 1-5 offspring with recorded weaning time 20 to 22 days. Morphologically Juvenile Indian Pika have slightly haired, with eyes closed and well-developed teeth, the average mass of offspring was 10 to 12 g on 3rd days after birth and eyes open on 9 ± 2 days after birth. The weight of juvenile Indian Pika was recorded average 70 ± 23 g in 22 days. Indian Pika reaches minimum adult mass within 3 months of birth and sexually mature within 7 to 9 months and breed in next coming season. Mortality rates are greatest in the first three months after birth and average mortality rates recorded 40 to 60 % each year, and found that very few Indian Pika survived at the studied population for the three years of the study in their natural habitat.